International business administration - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 19 Words: 5844 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Management summary In this thesis the relationship between the predominant leadership styles in the academic literature, transformational and transactional leadership, and organization citizenship behaviour will be discussed and analyzed. In the transformational leadership   style the leader motivates and inspires followers by gaining their trust and respect. The leader communicates the goals, visions and missions in a clear way and stimulates his followers to go beyond the call of duty. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "International business administration" essay for you Create order Transactional leadership is based on an exchange relationship between the leader and followers. Followers receive rewards when they perform according to the standards and requirements set by their leader. Organizational citizenship behaviour concerns those voluntary acts performed by   individual employees that are of a discretionary and voluntary nature and contribute to the effectiveness of the organization. However, when organizations exert citizenship pressures on their employees this might have some serious consequences on their workforce. These high levels of pressure to be a good citizen can result in job stress, work-family conflicts, work-leisure conflicts and might even result in quitting intensions among employees. This thesis will also focus on the desirability of OCBs within the organization and the dangers of citizenship pressures. Chapter 1.Introduction to the thesis 1.1 Problem Indication Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) has been a popular subject among several fields of study for the past couple of decades. OCBs are positive, individual and voluntary acts performed by employees which go beyond their job descriptions and are not directly rewarded or monitored (Organ, 1988). According to Katz Kahn (1966) these kinds of behaviour are important to organizations because organizations depend on behaviour of their employees that go further than their job description even though these behaviours are not actively monitored and enforced. Because of the voluntary nature of the positive acts the theory of OCBs seems to be very positive for both the individuals within an organization and the effectiveness of the organization as whole. OCB has been linked with loyalty, obedience, voluntarism, helping behaviours, altruism and other positive traits in many previous studies throughout the years (Bolino, Turnley, Niehoff, 2004; Organ, Podsakoff, MacKenzie, 2006). But recent studies have also investigated the darker side of OCB. The problem lies with the discretionary and voluntary nature of OCB. There are situations in which employees feel like OCB is expected of them, this citizenship pressure can lead to job stress, work conflicts and even quitting intensions (Bolino,Turnley, Gilstrap, Suazo, 2010). The first part of this thesis will go further into the dynamics of OCB and will look at both the positive and negative side of OCB. The second part of this thesis will address the relation between leadership styles and OCB. Leadership styles are of great influence on the OCBs of employees (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978). In the studies of Bass (1985) and Burns (1978)   a distinction has been made between transformational and transactional leadership. These different styles of leadership have different implications on the degree of OCB among the employees (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978). 1.2 Problem statement The problem statement of this thesis is formulated in one single question: How do the different styles of leadership influence organizational citizenship behaviour ? 1.3 Research Questions The research questions that are derived from the problem indication are: To what degree is OCB desired within an organization? What is the influence of transactional leadership on OCB? What is the influence of transformational leadership on OCB? 1.4 Methodology The type of research that will be conducted for this thesis is a descriptive research. The thesis will be a literature study which means secondary sources will be gathered and researched (Sekaran, 2008). An analysis of the different variables will be made in order to find the answers to the formulated research questions. The links between the different variables researched in this thesis can be the basis for further empirical research. The main concepts of the research are organizational citizenship behaviour and the transformational (or charismatic) (Yukl, 1999) and transactional leadership types. 1.5 Structure In this thesis the relationship between the two predominant leadership styles and OCB within an organization will be analyzed. The first chapter will get into the dynamics of OCB in order to determine whether or not and to what degree OCB is desirable. This means that both the positive and negative sides of OCB within an organization will be balanced in this chapter. At the end of chapter one the first research question of this thesis will be answered. Chapter two and three will link transformational and transactional leadership with OCB. In these chapters it will become clear how the different styles of leadership stimulate OCB and which leadership style results in the largest amount of OCBs. After these chapters the answer to the problem statement is given in the conclusion. Furthermore, limitations of this research and managerial and academic implications will be discussed. Chapter 2. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour 2.1 Introduction Organizational citizenship behaviour is a topic that has fascinated many researchers and managers for the last couple of decades since Bateman and Organ (1983) were the first to address this topic in 1983. Nowadays in times of economical crises OCB remains an interesting subject, because in a race of the survival of the fittest organizations rely on good citizens to survive. However, recent studies of the past couple of years have reported some negative implications of OCB and have questioned the desirability of OCB (Bolino, Gilstrap, Turnley Suazo, 2010; Korgaard, Meglino, Lester Jeong, 2010; Van Dyne Ellis, 2004). Vardi and Weitz (2003) have reported on the concept of organizational misbehaviour (OMB) as a counterpart to OCB in their studies. In this chapter both the positive and negative implications of OCB and citizenship pressures exerted by the organizations will be discussed.   In order to answer the question whether or not OCB is desirable within an organization the concept of organizational citizenship behaviour has to be explained.. OCB can be defined as individual behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of an organization, according to the study of Organ (1988, p. 4). OCB is behaviour of a constructive nature by the employee, which is not a part of the formal job description (Organ, 1988). According to Moorman, Blakely and Niehoff (1988) employees will engage in OCBs when they feel that that behaviour is justified by the positive actions of the organization and are consistent with the treatment and commitment of the organization. Employees feel the need to repay the organization for the positive treatment and commitment they receive throughout the relationship (Moorman et al., 1988). Research of Kidder (1998) and Stamper and Van Dyne (2001) argues that employees that have a long-term relationship with a firm perform more OCBs than temporary or part-time workers. 2.2 The sunny side of OCB Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine and Bachrach (2000) distinguished thirty forms of citizenship behaviours from the literature on OCB and grouped them in seven dimensions; helping behaviour, sportsmanship, organizational compliance, organizational loyalty, self development, civic virtue and individual initiative. Helping behaviours are voluntary behaviours that help fellow colleagues prevent or solve work related problems. This kind of behaviour includes supporting and cheering for fellow employees and also peacemaking activities when there are times of conflict and struggles between employees (Organ, 1988). Organizational compliance is a form of OCB which regards the following and obeying of organizational procedures and rules by the employees (Borman Motowidlo, 1993). Organizational compliance argues that good citizens follow the rules and procedures of the organization instinctively and precisely, even when they know that they are not being supervised or monitored (Podsakoff et al., 2000).  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Podsakoff et al. (2000) state that organizational compliance is a form of OCB even though it is expected from subordinates to act according the rules and regulations of the company, because in many cases employees do not act according these rules and regulations when they know that they are not being observed or monitored. Thus, according to Podsakoff et al. (2000) employees that follow up the rules and regulations very precisely even when they know that they are not being supervised can be viewed as very good organizational citizens. Sportmanship is a type of OCB which describes the process of coping with all the inevitable problems and inconveniences that are bound to happen at work without complaining (Organ, 1990). According to Podsakoff, et al., (2000) good sportsmanship occurs when employees refrain from complaining when other colleagues cause inconveniences for them. Good sports are willing to make personal sacrifices in the interest of the group and do not showcase a negative attitude when things are not going their way. Furthermore, good sports do not get offended when their suggestions and ideas are not followed up by the rest of the employees in their working environment. Individual initiative is regarded as OCB when a person goes that far beyond the expected level of task-related behaviours that these behaviours can be viewed as voluntary (Podsakoff et al., 2000).   When employees engage in individual initiative they showcase extra effort and enthusiasm in order to increase their task performance or the performance of the organization as a whole. They voluntarily come up with new ideas and innovations in order to increase organizational effectiveness and encourage fellow colleagues to act in the same way (Podsakoff, et al., 2000). Organizational loyalty refers to the strong commitment of employees to the organization throughout the good and the bad times (Graham, 1991), defending the organization against threats from the outside and promoting the organization to people outside the organization (Borman Motowidlo, 1997; George Jones 1997). According to the research of Podsakoff et al. (2000) civic virtue(Organ, 1988)means that employees recognize that they are part of a larger whole and they acknowledge and accept the responsibilities for the effective functioning of their organization. The employees actively look out for opportunities and threats in the environment of their organization. They participate actively in the decision making process of the organization and are constantly acting out of the interest of the company while putting their personal interests aside (Podsakoff et al., 2000).   Self development is citizenship behaviour that occurs when employees voluntarily undertake actions in order to learn and improve their skills, knowledge and capabilities (Podsakoff et al., 2000). The study of George and Brief (1992) states that self development might consist of employees participating in advanced training course, employees undertaking actions in order to keep up with the latest developments in their field; or employees might even learn an entirely new set of skills. Self development behaviour is good citizenship behaviour because employees try to improve and increase their personal contributions to the performance and effectiveness of the organization (George Brief, 1992). These seven dimensions of OCB all describe positive acts and contributions from the employees which benefit the organization. According to Organ Konovsky (1989) these combined contributions of individual employees increase organization effectiveness significantly over time. Because of the positive nature of these citizenship behaviours organizations try to stimulate OCBs among their employees. These citizenship pressures lead to higher levels of OCB within the organization, which is essentially favourable for the company (Bolino,Turnley, Gilstrap Suazo, 2010). However, the stimulation of citizenship behaviours can have a negative effect on the employees because the citizenship pressure to please the organization can result in job stress, quitting intensions and work-family and work-leisure conflicts (Bolino et al., 2010; Greenhaus Beutell, 1985; Reich, 2001; Sauter Murphy, 1995). 2.3 The dark side of OCB One could argue that OCB has a lot of positive implications for an organization based on the dimensions described by Podsakoff et al.(2000). Recent studies however have also shed light on the darker side of OCB (Bolino et al.,2010; Korsgaard Meglino, Lester, Jeong,2010; Van Dyne Ellis, 2004; Vigoda-Gadot, 2006). Organ (1988) implies that OCB is solely a positive phenomenon within an organization, because of the discretionary and voluntary nature of OCB. Furthermore, Organ (1988, p. 4) argues that OCB promotes the effective functioning of an organization. Vigoda-Gadot (2006, p. 79) concludes from the definition of OCB by Organ (1988) that it implies that OCB consists of informal contributions that a participant can choose to make or withhold, without the regard to considerations of sanctions or formal incentives. However, recent studies have countered the discretionary nature of OCB. Korsgaard et al. (2010, p. 277), argue that OCB is based on the norm of reciprocity: the obligation to reciprocate the benefits already received from another (paying you back) and the expected reciprocity that ones actions will stimulate future benefits from another (paying me forward). Vardi and Weitz (2003) have mentioned the concept of organizational misbehaviour (OMB) in their studies as a counterpart to OCB. Organizational misbehaviour is behaviour of a social nature   that harms the interest of the organization.   According to Vardi and Weitz (2003) there are five types of organizational misbehaviour; intra-personal misbehaviour, inter-personal misbehaviour, property misbehaviour, production misbehaviour and political misbehaviour.   OMB can be viewed as the real dark side of employee behaviours. 2.3.1 Citizenship pressure Citizenship pressure occurs when employees feel the pressure to engage in OCBs because their employer tries to stimulate that behaviour by informal compensation (Bolino,Turnley, Girlstrap Suazo, 2010).Citizenship pressure is a phenomenon that differs from individual to individual and it is of a subjective nature (Bolino, et al.,2010). Employees that are regarded as high-self monitors are more likely to give in to citizenship pressures and engage more in citizenship behaviours, because those employees value their image and the way they are perceived by their co-workers and supervisors (Blakely, Andrews, Fuller, 2003). The study of Bolino et al. (2010) has shown that citizenship pressure leads to higher levels of OCB of employees within an organization. Hence, the studies of Korsgaard, et al.(2010) and Bolino, et al.(2010) question both the discretionary and voluntary nature of OCB. Research has shown that managers do take OCBs into account when evaluating their employees and making other decisions (Podsakoff, et al.,2000) Van Dyne and Ellis (2004) state that with citizenship pressure, behaviour that was once voluntary and discretionary can become an obligation. Van Dyne and Ellis (2004) mention the phenomenon of job creep, this situation occurs when employees constantly feel the pressure to do more than their job actually requires of them. The duties of the employees are slowly increased without official recognition of the organization and in time are expected of the employees (Van Dyne Ellis, 2004). Although citizenship pressure may be a positive phenomenon from an organizations point of view because it leads to more OCB, it also is associated with negative consequences for the employees and their organization (Bolino, et al.,2010). The amounts of job stress experienced by the employees are likely to increase in the case of high levels of citizenship pressures (Bolinio, et al.,2010).   Job stress occurs when employees do not have the capabilities and resources that are needed to fulfil their job requirements. The incapability to fulfil these job demands will lead to negative consequences for the emotional and physical state of the employees who experience high levels of job stress (Sauter Murphy, 1995). According to Bolino, Turnley, Gilstrap, Suazo (2010) employees who experience citizenship pressures to behave as a good citizen of the organization may also feel the pressures at home to be a good partner and parent. This work-family conflict is a role conflict that occurs when the work role demands that are required from an employee are not compatible with the demands of the family (Greenhaus Beutell, 1985).   Work-family conflicts may arise when the partners of the employees have difficulties in understanding why their partner chooses to engage in OCBs that are technically not required of them and are not formally rewarded rather than to spend time with their family (Edwards Rothbard, 2000). Research of Flynn (1996) shows that in a situation of high citizenship pressures employees with less demanding family situations engage in more citizenship behaviours than married employees with more responsibilities towards their families. Another conflict related to citizenship pressure is the work-leisure conflict. This conflict arises when employees experience difficulties in balancing their work demands with their personal life and leisure time (Bolino, et al.,2010). The study of Reich (2001) states that employees who are physically away from their working environment, may still be mentally connected to their job. According to Bolino, et al.(2010) these employees experience a conflict between their desires for free time in their personal lives and the desire to be a good organizational citizen in order to receive the benefits that come with that kind of status. The employees who feel citizenship pressures may not enjoy their free time because they are worrying about the situation and problems at work. Furthermore, they may be troubled by the fact that their co-workers might surpass them in terms of productivity and value for the organization when they enjoy their personal time or they may be experiencing feelings of guilt because they are not working (Reich, 2001). This may lead to an increasing tendency among employees to keep in contact with their work office, by means of mobile phones, pagers or email, in order to remain available for their colleagues and superiors (Reich, 2001). These types of conflict caused by citizenship pressure, like the work-leisure conflict and the work-family conflict and the phenomenon of job stress, contribute to the job quitting intensions among the employees (Bolino et al.,2010). The dark side of OCB can be accounted to the citizenship pressures exerted by the organization. When an organization pressures   employees to perform citizenship behaviours this can result in negative consequences for the state of mind of the employees (Bolino et al., 2010; Edwards Rothbard, 2000; Greenhaus Beutell, 1985; Reich, 2001). This in turn can lead to decreases in productivity and effectiveness for the organization, because employees in a bad state of mind are more likely to leave the organization or work inefficiently (Bolino et al., 2010). 2.4 Desirability of OCB within the organization OCB in its core essence is desirable for organizations because those citizenship behaviours are linked with helping behaviours, loyalty and commitment to the organization, the following of rules and regulations, creativity and innovation and going the extra mile (Podsakoff, et al.,2000) .   These citizenship behaviours are characterized as positive contributions to an organization and its productivity, effectiveness and social climate (Moorman et al., 1988; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, et al.,2000). This makes it difficult for one to argue that citizenship behaviours are not desirable within an organization. However, there is also a darker side to OCB. These negative side effects of OCB occur when the voluntary and discretionary nature of citizenship behaviours is removed because of citizenship pressures exerted by the organization on their employees (Bolino et al.,2010; Korsgaard et al.2010) . Citizenship pressures can result in job stress, work-family conflicts, work-leisure conflicts and eventually in quitting intensions among employees (Bolino et al., 2010; Edwards Rothbard, 2000; Greenhaus Beutell, 1985; Reich, 2001).   Effectiveness and productivity of employees decrease when they experience job stress or work-family or work leisure conflicts, which in turn also has a negative influence on the company as a whole (Bolino, et al.,2010). In conclusion, one could argue that citizenship behaviours are a positive and desired phenomenon for an organization when the negative consequences of citizenship pressures exerted by the organization are not taken into account. However, citizenship pressures result in more OCBs among employees and thus organizations are inclined to exert those pressures on their employees (Bolino et al.,2010). Thus, organizations have to balance the positive and negative consequences of citizenship pressures and OCBs in order to maximize   the value of the employees for the company. Because citizenship pressures has different outcomes for each individual employee, the organization and group leaders could benefit from a thorough analysis of their workforce (Bolino et al., 2010). For instance, employees who are considered to be high self-monitors are more likely to engage in citizenship behaviours when they feel citizenship pressure, because they care about how they are being perceived by their co-workers and leaders (Blakely et al., 2003) Chapter 3.The transformational and transactional leadership styles 3.1 Introduction Leadership has always been an interesting topic for researchers from different fields. According to Tannenbaum, Weschler and Masarik (1961, p. 24) leadership is: interpersonal influence exercised in situations and directed, through the communication process, toward the attainment of a specified goal or goals. According to Wayne, Shore Liden (1997) leadership is important because the exchange between a manager and his follower   is the most important factor in determining employee behaviour. In the literature a distinction has been made by Burns (1978) and Bass (1985) between transactional leadership and transformational leadership. Burns (1978) reports that transactional and transformation leadership are complete opposites. Bass (1985), however, argues that transformational leaders may also use transactional leadership behaviours in certain situations. The concepts of transactional and transformational leadership will be explained in this chapter. 3.2 Transactional leadership The study of Bass (1985) shows that transactional leaders make the tasks and responsibilities of the followers clear and also promise the followers compensation for when their tasks are performed according to the standards. According to Deluga (1990) transactional leadership is an exchange process in which rewards and punishments are administered. Transactional leaders exchange financial rewards for productivity or deny rewards when the productivity of the followers is lacking (Bass Riggio, 2006). The relationship between the leader and his followers in a system of transactional leadership is focused on self interest and based on mutual dependency (Lagamarsino Cardona, 2003). Bass (1990) concludes in his research that there are four different types of transactional leadership. Contingent reward: The leader sets up a contract based on performance and rewards, solid performance is compensated with rewards. When goals are met the employees will get recognition for their accomplishments. Contingent reward leader behaviours have shown to have a positive relation with performance and follower attitudes (Avolio, Waldman Einstein, 1988; Waldman, Bass Yammarino, 1990). Laissez-Faire: In this particular form of transactional leadership the leader avoids making decisions and steps away from any responsibilities. The subordinates have to fulfil their tasks on their own. According to Dubinsky, Yammarino, Jolson, Spangler (1995) this type of leader is indifferent, frequently absent,   inattentive and does not influence the workforce. Management by exception (active): The leader actively looks for errors and mistakes in the work process. When the tasks performance of the employees is not on the required level the leader will intervene and he will try to put the employees back on the right track. Management by exception (passive): The leader only undertakes actions when the level of output and requirements and standards are not met by his subordinates. All these types of transactional leadership lack leadership behaviours that motivate employees to be the best they can be for the organization and to go the extra mile for colleagues and superiors. 3.3 Transformational leadership The transformational leadership theory of Bass (1985) states that transformational leadership creates a bond of trust between the leader and followers, motivating employees to achieve beyond expectations. According to Bass (1985) transformational leadership activates employees higher-order needs and lets them act out of the interest of the company. Transformational leaders are able to motivate their followers to the degree that they not only increase their task performance but also engage in OCBs that help the organization to function in an effective way (Smith, Organ, Near, 1983). Transformational leaders motivate their subordinates to come up with creative and innovative for difficult issues within the organization (Bass, 1985). Furthermore, in the transformational leadership style the leaders encourage their followers to go the extra mile for the organization and they reach out to their employees with constructive feedback (Bass, 1985).   Transformational leaders make thei r missions and goals clear to their followers and they convince the followers to act out of interest of the company (Piccolo Colquitt, 2006). Employees who are able to link their own success with that of the company and can identify with the values and goals of the organization are more likely to add value to the organization (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, Fetter, 1990). Bass (1985) states in his research that when a manager acts like a transformational leader he will be perceived as a more satisfying and effective leader than a transactional leader. Furthermore, according to the studies of Bass (1985), employees report that they are more willing to put in extra effort and time for managers who behave as transformational leaders. Bass Avolio (1993) and Pillai (1995) have reported in their studies that there is a positive relationship between transformational leadership and employee satisfaction, and between transformational leadership and in-role behaviours that lead to job perf ormance. According to Yukl (1999) transformational leadership can be viewed as the equivalent of charismatic leadership. In their research, Avolio Bass (2002) distinguished four different components of transformational leadership. Idealized influence: The leaders are admired, respected and trusted by their followers. The leaders are seen as examples/ role-models by the followers and the followers are inspired to emulate their actions. The leaders also put their followers interests above their own interest which earns them trust and respect. Idealized influence, or the charismatic dimension of transformational leadership (Bass, 1985), is often described as the most important component of transformational leadership (Waldman, Bass, Yammarino, 1990). Charismatic leaders receive respect and trust from their followers, because they create a sense of pride among their followers and communicate clear visions and missions (Bass, 1985).   Inspirational motivation: The leaders motivate their followers by attaching meaning and challenge to their work. The leader shows optimism and enthusiasm which stimulates individual and team spirit among the followers. Individualized consideration: The leaders take the needs and desires of the individual followers into account. The followers receive individual support from their leader in order to grow and develop and achieve higher goals. Intellectual stimulation: The followers are encouraged to be creative and innovative by their leaders. New approaches and new ideas are stimulated in order to get creative solutions to existing problems. Out of the box thinking is rewarded and it is not a shame to make errors. Chapter 4. The influence of transactional and transformational leadership on OCB 4.1 Introduction The predominant style of leadership in an organization has a great influence on the amount and types of OCBs performed by the employees within the organization. Bass (1990) described an experiment in a working area for convicted inmates. In this workplace the inmates had to produce several different types of products for in and outside the prison walls. One group of their supervisors received training in order to become transformational leaders, and the other group received a transactional leadership training. The inmates that were supervised by groups of transformational leaders performed better than those that were supervised by the transactional leaders. Not only did they perform better in the areas of productivity, absence and behaviour, the inmates also engaged in more citizenship behaviours. Furthermore, Bass (1990) states in his research that managers who are viewed as the high performers by their supervisors, also were viewed to be of a more transformational than transactional nature by their followers in a separate survey. In this chapter the relationship between transactional leadership, transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behaviour will be discussed. 4.2 Transactional leadership and OCB The transactional leadership style is based on an exchange relation between leaders and their followers. Employees are rewarded or punished based on whether or not their performance is according to the standards that were set by their transactional supervisors (Bass, 1985; Bass Riggio, 2006; Deluga, 1990). Because transactional leadership is a system of mutual dependency between leaders and followers that is based on self interest (Lagamarsino Cordona, 2003) and primarily an exchange process, transactional leadership leads to a low amount of citizenship behaviours performed by employees. The four different types of transactional leadership (Bass, 1990) do not convince employees to perform the seven dimensions of citizenship behaviour (Podsakoff et al.,2000). In the laissez-faire leadership style the leader avoids making decisions and steps away from his responsibilities. The followers have to do their tasks on their own and there is hardly any communication with the leaders. The leader is frequently absent, inattentive and indifferent and does not influence the workforce (Dubinsky et al.,1995). It is obvious that this type of leader will not stimulate citizenship behaviours among his followers. The leaders who act according to the management by exception style (both passive and active) only intervene when their followers do not meet up with the requirements and standards that are set for them. The employees do not meet up to their part of the exchange process (Bass Riggio, 2006) which is the only reason for the leader to communicate with the workforce. This kind of leadership behaviour does not stimulate the employees to engage in citizenship behaviours. The only type of transactional leadership that has some kind of relation to the dimensions of OCB is the contingent reward leadership style. In the contingent reward leadership style the employees receives recognition from their leader when they Avolio, Waldman Einstein (1988) Waldman, Bass Yammarino (1990) have reported in their studies that contingent reward leader behaviours have a positive influence on employee performance and follower attitudes. 4.3 Transformational leadership (charismatic leadership) and OCB Den Hartog, Keegan De Hoogh (2007) report in their studies that charismatic leadership behaviours of   leaders result in citizenship behaviours among followers. According to Den Hartog et al.(2007) leaders who have charismatic characteristics will increase citizenship behaviours in the dimensions of helping behaviours and organizational compliance. Employees are motivated to perform citizenship behaviours when they are able to identify with their charismatic leader. Research by Podsakoff et al.(1990) reports that there are direct and indirect effects of transformational leadership on citizenship behaviours and that trust is the key to this relationship. Konovsky Pugh (1994) also state that when employees experience procedural and distributive justice within their organization, this will enhance their sense of trust in the leader and will eventually lead to higher levels of citizenship behaviour. Shamir, House Arthur (1993) state that the positive influence of the charismatic leadership style on citizenship behaviours of employees can be described in a motivational process. In the beginning of this process the charismatic leader instils trust among the followers and makes the followers identify with him. Secondly, the charismatic leader enhances the followers role/task identification. This leads to increased levels of intrinsic motivation and increases the willingness of the employees to make sacrifices for their job. The charismatic leaders also increase the amount of citizenship behaviours by emphasizing the importance and superiority of the own group in contrast to other groups. This in turn results into high levels of identification among followers   with the group or team (Shamir et al., 1993). The positive relation between transformational leadership and citizenship behaviours is also emphasized by the link between the seven dimensions of organizational citizenship behaviour (Podsakoff et al.,2000) and the four components of transformational leadership (Avolio Bass, 2002). For instance, the transformational leadership components intellectual stimulation and inspirational motivation can be linked to the self development and individual initiative dimension of OCB. When a leader performs transformational leadership behaviours like intellectual stimulation or inspirational motivation, followers are likely to engage in citizenship behaviours like self development or individual initiative. Transformational leadership component Organizational citizenship behaviour dimension Idealized influence Organizational compliance Civic virtue Organizational loyalty Inspirational motivation Self development Individual initiative Sportsmanship Individual consideration Self development Individual initiative Intellectual stimulation Self development Individual initiative Table 1. Linking OCB dimensions to transformational leadership components. Chapter 5.Conclusions and recommendations 5.1 Introduction This chapter will provide a conclusion to this thesis. An answer to the problem statement and the research questions will be given. Furthermore, this chapter will contain some managerial recommendations and recommendations for future research and also some limitations of this research will be discussed. 5.2 The conclusion The problem statement of this thesis is: How do the different styles of leadership influence organizational citizenship behaviour? The answer to this question is quite clear. Transformational leaders have the ability to get the best out of their followers and motivate them to go beyond the call of duty. Transformational leaders inspire their followers to be creative and innovative and they emphasize the importance of self-development (Bass, 1985). Employees trust and respect their transformational leaders. Because of the strong social bond with their transformational leader, the employees also experience a bond with their organization. This bond makes the employees act out of interest of the company (Piccolo Colquitt, 2006). The employees are proud to be part of the organization and are willing to engage in citizenship behaviours, even though these behaviours are not part of their job description and are not rewarded. Transformational leadership results in behaviours among employees that fit in the description of the seven dimensions of citizenship behaviours (Podsakoff et al., 2000). They are loyal to their organization; engage in helping behaviours; are good sports to their co-workers; follow the rules of the organization; show individual initiative, self development and feelings of civic virtue. Transformational leaders have the ability to motivate their subordinates to the degree that they not only increase their task performance but also perform citizenship behaviours that help the organization to function in an effective way (Smith, Organ, Near, 1983) Transactional leaders on the other hand have a relation with their employees that is based purely on exchange of productivity for rewards (Deluga, 1990). Because this relationship is based on self interest, rewards and mutual dependency, leaders and followers do not feel the need to go beyond their job description (Lagamarsino Cardona, 2003). Only transactional leaders who follow the contingent reward type of leadership might stimulate their followers to perform OCBs, because they acknowledge the accomplishments of the employees who reach their goals (Bass, 1990). Avolio, Waldman Einstein (1988) Waldman, Bass Yammarion (1990) have reported a positive relation between contingent reward leader behaviours and follower performance and follower attitudes. Laissez-faire leaders let their employees perform their tasks by themselves and are frequently absent, inattentive and do not influence the workforce (Bass, 1990; Dubinsky, Yammarino, Jolson, Spangler, 1995). Leaders who follow the style of management by exception (both passive and active) only interrupt the work process when the standards and requirements are not met by their followers (Bass, 1990). The conclusion is that transactional leadership is the complete opposite of transformational leadership regarding the influence on citizenship behaviour within an organization. Transformational leaders stimulate among their followers OCB through various actions, and transactional leaders do not stimulate OCB at all. Citizenship behaviours are desired within an organization because these combined contributions of individual employees increase the effectiveness of the organization significantly over time (Organ Konovsky (1989). However, organizations have to watch out with exerting citizenship pressures. These citizenship pressures do increase the amount of citizenship behaviours within the organization, however citizenship pressure is also linked with job stress, work-family conflicts, work-leisure conflicts and quitting intensions among employees (Bolino et al, 2010). 5.3 Limitations of the research One limitation in this research on the area of the desirability of OCB within organizations is that there are no exact measurements of the positive outcomes of citizenship behaviours and the negative effects of job stress, work-family conflicts, work-leisure conflicts and quitting intensions. This makes it difficult to make a precise assessment of the desirability of OCB and to find out whether or not and to what degree citizenship pressures are effective. The examination of the right way and the right amount of citizenship pressures might be another interesting topic for future research. Another limitation of this research is the fact that only the two predominant leadership styles, transformational and transactional leadership, are taken into account in researching the link between leadership styles and organizational citizenship behaviour.

Isadora Duncan Essay - 2921 Words

Isadora Duncan amp;#9;Isadora Duncan was a famous dancer who brought a new kind of dance to the world. She danced out the feelings from deep in her heart. Unlike other dancers in the late nineteenth century, Isadora Duncan danced with flowing motion. She was not a ballerina, and did not like to watch ballet dancers, with their stiff bodies and unnatural pointe shoes. At first she was not liked, but as time went on, Isadora Duncan became a dance revolutionist people all over the world will never forget. amp;#9;Angela Isadora Duncan was born, one of four, on May 26,1877 in San Francisco, California. Her mother, Dora Duncan, was a piano teacher, and her father, Joseph Duncan was a banker, journalist, and poet. Her parents were both†¦show more content†¦She knew how to dance from all the practice she got from dancing at home to their mothers piano music, but she had not yet taken any dancing lessons. Her mother saved up enough money for her to participate in a small dance school, but Isadora disliked her teacher. He made her dance in pointe shoes, which Isadora found painful, ugly, and unnatural. In ballet, everything has a specific step or a traditional pose. Ballerinas dance with stiff bodies, without freedom of movement. This went against the way Isadora liked to dance. She quit her schooling after three lessons. Although her own dance lessons had not gone well, she quit her academic schooling, and started her business. Her neighbors had noticed her gracefulness and began s ending their children to be her students. Pretty soon, word got around and Isadora was teaching some of the wealthy girls of San Francisco. Her classes eventually grew so large that Isadora found that her own dance lessons had indeed been unnecessary. amp;#9;One day, when Isadora was sixteen, her father came back to their apartment with good news. He felt badly about leaving his family with practically nothing, when he had plenty of money to himself. He bought the family a giant mansion with a tennis court, dancing rooms, a barn and a windmill. Then he left, never to be seen by his family again. Elizabeth and Isadora started a dance school and Raymond and Augastin made theShow MoreRelatedIsadora Duncan: Pioneer of Modern Dance825 Words   |  3 Pageswords.† (Duncan, 440) Mid nineteenth centuries was a period of rigid and standardized ballet which tortured and restrained their body and mind. Against that societys convention, there was a woman who tried to communicate with people through her dance. She, Isadora Duncan, was a pioneer of the modern dance, and her dance embraced her sophisticated ideals. Even though the public remember her only with the complicated and scandalous rumors about her lovers and dramatic death by sc arf, Isadora Duncan’sRead MoreModern Dance : Isadora Duncan1309 Words   |  6 Pagestheir input into modern dance was Isadora Duncan, throughout the history of modern dance people have referred to Isadora Duncan (1878- 1927) as a symbolic figure of independence. This is not merely because she rejects to follow educational dance but because she has the audacity to disrupt dance ethnicities and shared codes with her aesthetical plans. She mainly creates her choreography by studying other artistic languages such as poetry, monuments and music. For Isadora, dance is an expression of herRead MoreThe Life Of The Mother Of Modern Dance Essay1167 Words   |  5 Pagesunusual. Isadora Duncan began to learn dancing from a very young age. She always wanted to be different from others. She loved to dance, but she thought traditional dances didn t have freedom. So she didn t learn classical ballet. Instead, Isadora listened to the music and created her own way to dance. She barefoot, w ore simple clothes and moved as she liked. No one had ever danced like that before. Isadora Duncan has been one of the most enduring influences on 20th century culture. Duncan was theRead MoreI Have Been Dancing For 11 Years877 Words   |  4 Pageseveryone at balls. This style of dance is very elegant and formal. The movie Cinderella describes how Balls and Ballroom dancing helped people to find the perfect one. The Greeks inspired many people throughout time with dance, in particular Isadora Duncan. Isadora studied Greek culture while in Europe. The Greeks inspired her to take dancing to the next level. From there she became a professional dancer. Moving on in history. The next style of dance that drew attention of the people was the Waltz.Read MoreEssay about Dance688 Words   |  3 Pages 1. What are the innovations of Isadora Duncan, Denishawn, Martha Graham, and Cunningham. Discuss these in relation to style, technique and theory. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Many Historians say that Isadora Duncan was the first dancer to present â€Å"modern dancing† to the public. Duncan felt that the pointe shoes and costumes that ballerinas wore were to restrictive. She began to dance in a way that seemed to be more natural to her. Her inspirations came from the movements of the tress, the oceanRead MoreIs Dance A Universal Language?1616 Words   |  7 Pagesseems to have more of a free-spirited, not so regimented way about it which is refreshing. As our text states, in the late 19th century, the brilliant Isadora Duncan started a movement from the rigidity and strictly ballet moves to a more updated, modern style of dance which incorporated much more freedom and fluidity of all parts of the body (211.) Isadora was a pioneer of dance and she helped the entire practice evolve. Folk dancing seems to be more of a traditional thing, which showcases the dancer’sRead MoreWomen of the Gold Rush1069 Words   |  4 PagesCalifornia to work as prostitutes or entertainers during the 1850’s (Women). However, there were still many women in San Francisco who were very influential and leave an everlasting impression on the city. Women such as Lillie Hitchcock Coit, Isadora Duncan, and Mary Ellen Pleasant were all very important people living in San Francisco during the 1800’s to 1900’s, and were able to make a difference in their community. Being the first woman to participate in a fire rescue and late be made the mascotRead MoreEssay about Isadora Duncans New Dance2141 Words   |  9 PagesIsadora Duncans New Dance At the end of the 19th century, ballet was the most prominent form of dance. However, to Isadora Duncan, ballet was the old order that needed to be overthrown, an embodied symbol of all that was wrong with oversymbolized 19th century living (Daly 26). Duncan believed that the over-technical, over-standardization of ballet was not what dance should be about. Her vision of dance was one of emotions, ideas, social betterment, and the complete involvement of the bodyRead MoreIsadora Duncans Influences1376 Words   |  6 Pages Isadora Duncan was a defining figure in the development of Modern dance. She set out to revolutionise dance by challenging society and by changing the expectations of dance as an art form. She made a new art form by developing a new technique, style, and choreography, which was about letting the soul out and responding to nature. Dance was an integral part of who Duncan was, and it was not so much about what she did. She introduced the use of breath in her dance, which changed the way it was perceivedRead MoreInterpretation Of The Brief. Graded Unit Requires Two Solos1399 Words   |  6 Pagespractitioners coming from a strong ballet background. During this time, ballet was the main style of dance, but Isadora Duncan believed that dance should be natural. She believed dance was a sacred art and showed this in her work. She did not believe in structured ballet classes like most others at the time, often teaching any choreography that she thought up at the time. Isadora Duncan was the real pioneer of contemporary dance, making it easier for others like Merce Cunningham and Martha Graham

Academic Writing and Research Skills

Questions: 1) Use your notes to conduct a critical review of literature in the selected papers. 2) What do you understand by referencing and what are its different styles? Answers: 1. Deception and denial as a tool for cyber defense: Day by day as the cyber attack techniques are getting evolved and modernized, the traditional methods for preventing those attacks became inadequate. In the modern cyber attack scenario, the denial and deception are used to prevent the attacks. In the present day scenario this methodology is gaining momentum to secure the organizational networks (Heckman et al., 2015). The deception is used as a proactive cyber security approach to safeguard a particular computer network. As the signature based security mechanisms are failing in preventing and mitigating the modern Zero day attacks. Most of the cyber attackers, work on the assumption, that the visible network infrastructure is real, and the deception technology takes advantage of this assumptions by the attackers. Carefully outlined traps to pull in assailants while they are penetrating the network and in a flash recognize those attacks (Hsu, Marinucci Voas, 2015). Therefore, the intruders find the physical resources inaccessible by compromising the control system of the network. On the other hand, denial is considered as another effective tool to prevent the intrusion attacks. For this, the adversaries create condition like the denial of service. In this kind of situation, the network is flooded with excessive failed access attempts. This cyber attack prevention mechanism is implemented by the combined efforts of denial and deception planners, analysts, security operators (Heckman et al., 2013). The steps in implementing a Deception and Denial plan include the development of cover story which includes the selection of the information that is going to create the honey pots for the attacker. After that, the whole plan is executed by the security operators. Honeypots are intended to be assaulted to empower information gathering about the intruders/hackers practices and methods, and to uncover vulnerable services provided by the network. Honey pots are ordinarily sorted as high interaction and low interaction. Low interaction honey pots copy the services where the level of copying incorporated with the administrations decides the level of interaction with the honey pot by the intruder or attacker (Heckman et al., 2015). High interaction honey pots give a genuine working operating system intended to react intuitively with the attackers. Use of honey pots: Honey pots are genuine machines with false systems, for example, virtualization and system monitoring apparatuses, made to trick intruders into supposing they have compromised a worthless system, lessening the number of intrusion or attacks on a genuine and valuable system. Honey tokens are another deceptive security approach. Honey tokens are made of files such as records containing false data, an email address related with a non-existent individual or fake movement to recognizing eavesdropping in unknown and anonymous communication systems (Almeshekah Spafford, 2014). This honey tokens are not able to prevent the intrusion attacks, but is able to detect the intrusion in the early phases. In the year 2012, the MITRE Corporation performed a cyber-war game to check the effectiveness of the denial and deception tradecraft in securing an organizational cyber space. The cyber war game was intended to test a dynamic organizational network resistance digital security platform being researched and invented in The MITRE Corporation's Innovation Program called Blackjack, and to examine the utility of utilizing denial and deception method to upgrade the security of data in control and command systems (Hsu, Marinucci Voas, 2015). Figure 1: Architecture of CND based defense mechanism (Source: Heckman et al., 2013, pp-74) Blackjack utilized a rules engine to apply policies to each HTTP request coming in the organizational network with a specific end goal to direct the response to client requests called Intellect, which is domain specific language and rules engine developed in Python programming language. According to Bogatinov et al. (2015), the user requests are processed depending upon the proxy configuration and digital certificates of the users. Ant based approach: Another approach for securing the networks is, MTD (Moving target defense). This mechanism is applied to the already defended systems or networks. According to Hsu, Marinucci Voas (2015) this approach uses shuffling of the configurations of network equipments (like routers, switches), remapping of the address space is used to secure the network (Fink et al., 2014). In this way, an IP address targeted by the attackers does not always is assigned to a specific computer/ workstation. In order to implement this kind of security mechanism administrators depends on the ant based cyber defense approach. This approach is a flexible resistance mechanism that removes the chances of intruders ability to depend on prior knowledge, without any significant change in the secured network. 2. Referencing: While writing an academic paper, we refer to the information to another source. This source can be other authors theories, quotes and views in their own reports and journals (Wingate, 2012). Whenever we use those sources, we have to acknowledge those sources in our academic report or journal. Acknowledging the sources in the academic writing is known as referencing. Different styles of referencing: The following table describes different types of referencing styles used by different universities and organization for acknowledging the source of information. Referencing Style Organization Special features Application APA American psychological Association Author name and date used to in text. Social and behavioral sciences, anthropology and psychology. Harvard Harvard University Author name and date used to in text. Business studies, natural and social sciences. Chicago University of Chicago press Have flexible guidelines for the headings. Author, date and note used to in text (Turabian, 2013). Social, biological and physical sciences. IEEE Institute for Electronics Electrical Engineers Name of the journal or report on italics, authors first and last name is used. Electrical engineering studies and Electronics. MLA Modern Languages association of America Author and page number of the report or journal is used to in text. Modern day literature, humanities and other subjects and fields. Vancouver Proposed in a meeting in Vancouver Number for each source is used for in text (Wingate Tribble, 2012). Mostly in Medical sciences and humanities. References Almeshekah, M. H., Spafford, E. H. (2014, September). Planning and integrating deception into computer security defenses. InProceedings of the 2014 workshop on New Security Paradigms Workshop(pp. 127-138). ACM. Bogatinov, D., Bogdanoski, M., Angelevski, S. (2015). AI-Based Cyber Defense for More Secure Cyberspace. Fink, G. A., Haack, J. N., McKinnon, A. D., Fulp, E. W. (2014). Defense on the move: ant-based cyber defense.IEEE Security Privacy,12(2), 36-43. Heckman, K. E., Stech, F. J., Schmoker, B. S., Thomas, R. K. (2015). Denial and Deception in Cyber Defense.Computer,48(4), 36-44. Heckman, K. E., Walsh, M. J., Stech, F. J., O'boyle, T. A., DiCato, S. R., Herber, A. F. (2013). Active cyber defense with denial and deception: A cyber-wargame experiment.Computers Security,37, 72-77. Hsu, D. F., Marinucci, D., Voas, J. M. (2015). Cybersecurity: Toward a Secure and Sustainable Cyber Ecosystem.Computer,48(4), 12-14. Turabian, K. L. (2013).A manual for writers of research papers, theses, and dissertations: Chicago style for students and researchers. University of Chicago Press. Wingate, U. (2012). Using academic literacies and genre-based models for academic writing instruction: A literacyjourney.Journal of English for Academic Purposes,11(1), 26-37. Wingate, U., Tribble, C. (2012). The best of both worlds? Towards an English for Academic Purposes/Academic Literacies writing pedagogy.Studies in Higher Education,37(4), 481-495.

NIke ad free essay sample

When Introducing Yourself First Impressions are a crucial factor In determining how a person Judges you and what their overall opinion is of you. According to Merriam-Webster. Com, an impression is the effect or influence that something or someone has on a persons thoughts or feelings. When walking into a Job interview, first impressions are a major factor in whether you are going to get the Job or not because it causes the interviewer to make Judges and opinions about you.To begin Introducing yourself, It helps If you start by saying your name and to address the person by their name Marshall 1). Saying the other persons name two or three times at the beginning of an introduction can help you remember their name and show an interest in the person (Marshall 1). There are many things that make up a great first impression, but three main tips that help you conduct good impressions are to be yourself when introducing yourself, present yourself appropriately, and to be open and confident when speaking (Making 1). We will write a custom essay sample on NIke ad or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page One of the most Irritating things I find when people speak Is when they make up things to portray themselves In a certain way that they feel Is right, but that way Is the furthest thing from who they really are. You have to be yourself when introducing yourself because you want to build a relationship with the person for who you really are, not who you want to be. When introducing yourself, if you feel sick or really anxious it can make the other person to feel strange and make a wrong impression (Making 1).Therefore, It Is always important that a person remains calm and acts themselves In order to deliver a good Impression. If you are confident, ready, and excited about introducing yourself, it will give off a good impression because it makes the other person feel more comfortable and seem like you really want to be there (Making 1). Presenting yourself appropriately is important wherever you are, but it is especially Important when Introducing yourself. The way you dress Is the first thing that another person sees when he or she looks at that you.Additionally, It Is a major making a good first impression. If you walk into a business meeting with executives from a new company wearing a tracksuit and sneakers, it is going to give the executives a bad impression about you and your company causing them to avoid doing any business from you. But, if you wore a nice suit and tie and acted professionally and maturely, then the executives can take you seriously and possibly o business. Presenting yourself appropriately leads to creating a strong and positive first impression (Making 1).When introducing yourself to an audience or to a single person, it is important that you remain open, confident, and communicate proper body language during your speech. Body language is another factor that determines the impression you make on a person. Remember, all introductions should portray enthusiasm by smiling, making eye contact, and speaking with a positive tone of voice (Marshall 2). You can stay confident during an introduction by walking up to a person with good gesture, a smile on your face, and ready to shake the other persons hand.Always remember to smile because that alone gives off a good impression. Your tone of voice should sound like you are excited, positive, and confident, but not over-confident (Marshall 2). Always remain open about yourself as well. Self-disclosure can be a good and bad thing during introducing yourself. You want to be comfortable and be able to talk about some of your goals and desires, but you dont want to talk too much about yourself where you may scare the other person off and ultimately give a bad impression.You want to always be ready to answer a follow up question by the other person. Body language and tone of voice are two important things to consider when introducing yourself and they can help you feel open and confident when talking. Judging someone is a very bad thing because most of the time they are wrong. People Judge someone by first impressions and a lot of the time they are bad or wrong impressions about the person. On that note, it is important that you portray a good first impression because it is ultimately what determines what people think of you.

Free Essays on Socrates And The Immortality Of The Soul

Most people grow up in the shadow of at least one of the major religions, all of which suppose some kind of survival beyond death. They therefore usually take it for granted that we can "know what we are talking about" when we speak of immortality or less grandiosely of survival after death. We assume sense has been given to talk of the soul as something correlative with the body, as Plato does when the discussion starts and death is characterized as the beginning of the separate existence of the soul and of the separate existence of the body. Although Socrates has no proof that the soul does exist after the body dies, his arguments can be convincing to many by using the dialectic. The dialogue between Socrates and the others begins with a longer statement of the type of defense Socrates gave in the Apology for thinking that death would be preferable to life for one with his interests: the desire for wisdom is frustrated by the body in various ways, so one can hope to get much further without the body's impediments. The philosopher's life is then a practicing to die [67-68, 80e-81]. The real argument starts when Cebes objects that the position depends on the assumption that the soul, or we might say, our mental activity aimed at understanding does actually hang together after the death of the body. The main arguments concerning the immortality of the soul come from the Phaedo. Socrates believed that when his body ceased to exist anymore, that his soul would leave and join that of the forms, where he would be eternally. Socrates believed so strongly in this, that not only did he not fear his death, he welcomed it. He believed that only when the soul separated from the body, is a person able to be truly enlightened and gain all knowledge. This enlightenment has been Socrates’ life long goal of discovering the truth. Even at his hour of death, Socrates showed no hesitation. However, Socrates’ friends did not believe so strongly, an... Free Essays on Socrates And The Immortality Of The Soul Free Essays on Socrates And The Immortality Of The Soul Most people grow up in the shadow of at least one of the major religions, all of which suppose some kind of survival beyond death. They therefore usually take it for granted that we can "know what we are talking about" when we speak of immortality or less grandiosely of survival after death. We assume sense has been given to talk of the soul as something correlative with the body, as Plato does when the discussion starts and death is characterized as the beginning of the separate existence of the soul and of the separate existence of the body. Although Socrates has no proof that the soul does exist after the body dies, his arguments can be convincing to many by using the dialectic. The dialogue between Socrates and the others begins with a longer statement of the type of defense Socrates gave in the Apology for thinking that death would be preferable to life for one with his interests: the desire for wisdom is frustrated by the body in various ways, so one can hope to get much further without the body's impediments. The philosopher's life is then a practicing to die [67-68, 80e-81]. The real argument starts when Cebes objects that the position depends on the assumption that the soul, or we might say, our mental activity aimed at understanding does actually hang together after the death of the body. The main arguments concerning the immortality of the soul come from the Phaedo. Socrates believed that when his body ceased to exist anymore, that his soul would leave and join that of the forms, where he would be eternally. Socrates believed so strongly in this, that not only did he not fear his death, he welcomed it. He believed that only when the soul separated from the body, is a person able to be truly enlightened and gain all knowledge. This enlightenment has been Socrates’ life long goal of discovering the truth. Even at his hour of death, Socrates showed no hesitation. However, Socrates’ friends did not believe so strongly, an...

Beginning Level Curriculum for ESL Classes

Beginning Level Curriculum for ESL Classes This curriculum summary is designed for false beginners. False beginners are typically learners who have had a few years training at some point in time and are now returning to start learning English again for a variety of reasons, such as for work, travel, or as a hobby. Most of these learners are familiar with English and can move pretty quickly to more advanced language learning concepts. This curriculum summary is written for a course of approximately 60 hours of instruction and takes students from the verb To be through present, past, and future forms, as well as other basic structures such as the comparative and superlative forms, the use of some and any, have got, etc. This course is geared towards adult learners who need English for work and, as such, concentrates on vocabulary and forms that are useful for the working world. Each group of eight lessons is followed by a planned review lesson which allows students a chance to review what they have learned. This syllabus can be adapted to fit students needs and is presented as a basis on which to build an elementary level ESL EFL English course. Listening Skills Beginning English learners often find listening skills the most challenging. Its a good idea to follow some of these tips when working on listening skills: To begin with, try to use only one voice for listening comprehension activities. A variety of accents can be added later.Exercises should begin with short form understanding such as spelling, numbers, understanding word form differences, etc.  Gap fill exercises work well for the next step in listening comprehension. Begin with sentence level understanding and move on to paragraph length listening selections.  Once students understand the basics, begin work on understanding gist by providing longer conversations with a focus on understanding the main idea. Teaching Grammar Teaching grammar is a big part of effectively teaching beginners. While full immersion is ideal, the reality is that students expect to learn grammar. Rote grammar learning is very effective in this environment.   At this level, rote activities can help learners understand intuitively. Dont worry too much about grammar explanations.  To help focus on sound rather than rules, repetitive activities can help establish a strong base.Take it in small bites. Pare things down to their essentials once you begin to teach. For example, if you were introducing the present simple dont begin with an example that includes an adverb of frequency such as He usually has lunch at work.  For tenses, stress the importance of time expressions tied to tense. Continually ask students to first identify the time expression or context before making a decision on tense usage.  Correct only those mistakes made in a current objective. In other words, if a student misuses in rather than at but the focus is on the past simple, dont make a point of correcting the mistake in preposition use. Speaking Skills Encourage students to make mistakes, many, many mistakes. Adult learners are often concerned about making too many mistakes and can be hesitant. Do your best to relieve them of this fear!Focus on function for beginning level activities. Set a goal such as ordering food in a restaurant. Help students learn how to functionally succeed in each situation.Switch groups up often. Some students tend to dominate conversations. Nip this in the bud, and change group composition up early and often.   Writing Skills Follow the language: begin with letters, create words, build words into sentences and let those sentences blossom into paragraphs.  Prohibit certain words when writing! Unfortunately, students often fall into the bad habit of using the same words over and over (go, drive, eat, work, come to school, etc.) Brainstorm word lists together as a class and then challenge students to only use certain words or phrases  in their writing.Use symbols to correct. Get students used to the idea that youll use symbols to help them edit their writing. The onus is on the students to correct their own writing.

Anlysis in Biochmeistry Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Anlysis in Biochmeistry - Lab Report Example The risk can be minimsed by using reliable controls for background fluorescence check as is used in the current study. The average percentage inhibition of the cytochrome P450 3A4 by ketaconazole was determined using a fluorescence based enzyme assay. The readings were obtained as per procedure and is recorded and calculated in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4. Ketaconazole samples in varying concentrations showed lower fluorescence than the sample without the test compound indicating the inhibitory activity of the drug on the enzyme cytochrome P450. Saple with 10 M concentration showed the least fluorescence and therefore the highest % inhibition of 95.274.7 and even a lower concentration of 0.1 M also shows a percentage inhibition of about 75.616.12. The fluorescence reading shows the inhibition of the enzyme to be directly proportional to the concentration of the test compound ketaconazole. The present study a fluorescence based assay to illustrate and evaluate the interaction of ketaconazole with the liver cytochrome P450 A4 using microsomes prepared from insect cells that express both human P450 isozyme and rabbit NADPH-P450 reductase and a substrate th

Mr. Smiths case in an ethical, legal and moral perspective Essay

Mr. Smiths case in an ethical, legal and moral perspective - Essay Example From this paper, it is clear that the mental health act allows that the service provider can make decisions on behalf of the patient provided that it is proven that the patient is mentally incapable to make choices. For this reason, a discussion between the involved parties resulted to an agreed decision.To conclude the task, it is clear that there are situations where the legal and ethical guidelines interact to help an individual to make a decision. At the same point, there are similarly clear variances between law and ethics that results to dilemmas. The practitioner, therefore, needs to be aware of the resemblances and the variances and in what way they affect the decisions made. It is necessary to remember the theories and moral principles that guide the moral obligations to be taken. Law is a key consideration when effecting any decision and must be considered in all ways. Law is different from the moral principles because it is enforceable in a law court while moral decisions are not backed by any enforcement authority (Benbassat&Baumal, 2012).It is also necessary to set up methods that guide the decision-making process to hasten the process and save time which is key when it comes to saving a life. Having mentioned all the above, I believe that if all health practitioners have diverse information concerning the different case they are faced with in their daily practice as a dilemma, they will be in a better position to deliver quality services to the patients at any time.

Lady Macbeth Essay Example for Free

Lady Macbeth Essay Macbeth was a play written by William Shakespeare in 1608. It is a very intriguing play. This essay will concentrate on Macbeths wife, Lady Macbeth and how her character undergoes extreme changes from Act 1 Scene 5 and Act 5 Scene 1. Lady Macbeth is an extremely dominant character, a principal catalyst for Macbeths rein, but towards the concluding part of the remarkable play, Lady Macbeth feels, and is relatively unimportant to Macbeth due to his ego and the confidence the three witches bestow him. Macbeth then had no specific reason to rely on Lady Macbeth for her strength and determination. Lady Macbeth then became overwhelmed with guilt and grew to be increasingly unstable. Part 1 Act 1 Scene 5 Act 1 Scene 5 is an extremely important scene because it is the preliminary time that the audience perceive Lady Macbeth. In this captivating scene Lady Macbeth receives a letter from Macbeth informing her of his new title, Thane of Cawdor and of the three witches prophecies. Lady Macbeth fears that Macbeth is not malicious enough to fulfil his ambitions of becoming King. Thus I may pour my spirits in thine ear, And chastise with the valour of my tongue This illustrates that she knows that if she was going to be the Queen of Scotland then she would have to persuade Macbeth to kill King Duncan. She is incredibly determined to be a powerful queen. Glamis thou art, and Cawdor; and shalt be what thou art promisd This implies that Lady Macbeth is indomitable and will not give up her cause until she has won. Lady Macbeth is also unbelievably manipulative. She realized that if she wanted to have her status as Queen then she would have to persuade Macbeth to carry out the unlawful deed. She knew she was a very powerful woman and that she had power over Macbeth, so the task set ahead of her, she thought, was not going to be excessively challenging. Thou which cries, Thus must do, if thou have it; This shows us Lady Macbeths manipulative side. She says that the crown cries out for it to be taken from the throne. This is someone who obviously desires something desperately. The extent of her ambition turns her to the supernatural world. Her ambition has overthrown her body and she calls upon the spirits to turn her into the opposite sex. She wants to cross over to the darker, masculine side so she could have the power and the strength to carry out the murder she has so carefully planned out. This gives the feel of unnaturalness. Come you spirits that tend on mortal thoughts! Unsex me here, this implies that Lady Macbeth is rather unbalanced from her entrance to the play, but as the play continues she gradually becomes worse. Lady Macbeth is an extremely evil person. She calls upon the spirits to assist her in the unlawful death of King Duncan. fill me from the crown to the toe top-full of direst cruelty This helps us understand how Lady Macbeth feels about the plan to murder. She is ruthless and has no compassion. She wants to ignore any goodness there is left in her body. She plans the killing of King Duncan with no remorse. This scene, presumably, shocked many audiences in the 17th century, this is mainly because Lady Macbeth is the dominant person in the marriage. This was extremely rare in the sixteen-hundreds because the male sex was labelled the stronger sex. The planning of King Duncan could have also stunned the audience because the planning was so merciful. Over the next few acts Lady Macbeth slowly looses her sanity. Though after the slaughter of King Duncan, Lady Macbeth takes control and places the murder weapon by the guards. She also orders Macbeth to wash the blood off his hand. And wash this filthy witness from your hand. This shows that she does not want any piece of evidence to link them to the murder. Lady Macbeth faints after Macbeth admits to killing the guards. Lady Macbeths use of language is extremely powerful and persuasive. Stop up the access and passage to remorse, this is just a fragment of Lady Macbeth strong language but it implies that she is a very strong, powerful young women. Part 2 Act 5 Scene 1 This scene is the last scene that the audience will observe Lady Macbeth. This scene is especially significant as the last time the audience saw Lady Macbeth was in the banquet scene, where Macbeth seemed to be unstable. Although Lady Macbeth is noticeably weaker she was still in control. In Act 5 Scene 1 she looses control on her life and has lost her sanity. Lady Macbeth has now lost her sanity completely. In the night she sleepwalks acting out the murder of King Duncan she repeatedly did this until she awoke. Concerned maids of Lady Macbeth brought in a doctor to examine her. The doctor soon discovered Macbeth and Lady Macbeth shameful secret. But the secret did not arise to the public due to a maid convincing the doctor otherwise. This is her very guise; and, upon my life, fast asleep. This is the gentlewomen trying to tell the doctor that Lady Macbeth is asleep. Lady Macbeth is extremely scared by this point, she can not be taken any where at night without a candle, she was terrified of darkness, a complete contrast from Act 1 Scene 5 where she called upon darkness block out any light coming through from the good side. she has a light by her continually; this implies that she is even too scared in her sleep to walk without a candle. Lady Macbeth is overwhelmed with guilt, you can see because throughout the scene she is constantly washing the blood of her hands, the same blood that she told Macbeth to wash off in Act 1 Scene 5. She told him to wash his hands so she could leave the guilt behind in the dirty bowl. Out damned spot! Out this show her desperation and it also implies that she wants to dispose of the guilt she has rapped up inside her body, but her mind will not let her. Her behaviour now shows that she was naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve to think she could have disposed of the guilt so easily. The language Lady Macbeth uses now is extremely different. Now, towards the end of her malicious life she is no longer a strong speaker. She speaks in riddles, this shows her mental state. The Thane of Fife had a wife: where is she now? She is talking in riddles, which do not make much sense; her life at that time did not make much sense; her speech is reflecting her life. The audience, at this part of the play are intended to feel sorry for Lady Macbeth because of her mental state and her health. In a way Lady Macbeth deserved what happened to her because she was a very evil person, but nobody deserves to be mentally unstable.

Escaping the Cage of Marriage in Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House Essays

Escaping the Cage of Marriage in A Doll House      Ã‚  Ã‚   A bird may have beautiful wings, but within a cage, the beautiful wings are useless. Within the cage, the bird is not fulfilling the potential for which it was created - it is merely a household decoration.   In Ibsen's symbolic play A Doll House, Nora is the bird, and her marriage is the cage. Externally, Nora is a beautiful creature entertaining her husband with the beautiful images of a docile wife, but internally, she is a desperate creature longing to explore her potential outside the cage of her marriage. In a society dominated by the expectations of men, Nora must choose between the obligations determined by her role as wife in opposition to the obligations of self, in determining her true identity. Within the context of love, she commits forgery, and through this deception, discovers her marriage is nothing more than an illusion, and she nothing more than a doll within Torvald's house. In Act I, the Christmas tree symbolizes the Helmer's marriage. Externally, the tree is beautifully decorated, but internally it is dying because the tree has no roots to feed it. Nora and Helmer are playing the roles that society has taught them. He is the strong provider and protector; Nora is the helpless little woman who depends on him. Like the Christmas tree, the Helmer's marriage is just an image of beauty, dying on the inside. After Krogstad informs Nora that he intends to blackmail her, she tells the maid to bring her the tree and set it in the middle of the floor (center stage) (1581). Nora begins to decorate the tree:    [I'll put c]andles here [and] flowers here. That terrible creature! Talk, talk, talk! There's nothing to it at all. The tree [is] going to be lo... ...ond the cage, the beautiful wings carry the bird into a life worth living. A life where the birds have the opportunity to accomplish the obligations of their creation is the only life worth living.    Works Cited Baruch, Elaine Hoffman. "Ibsen's Doll House: A Myth for Our Time." The Yale Review 69 (1980): 374-387. Gray, Ronald, ed. Ibsen-A Dissenting View: A Study of the Last Twelve Plays. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1961. Ibsen, Henrick. A Doll House. The Bedford Introduction to Literature: Reading, Thinking, Writing. 5th   ed. Ed. Michael Meyer. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1999. 1564-1612. Northram, John. "Ibsen's Search for the Hero." Ibsen: A Collection of Critical Essays. Ed. Rolf Fjelde. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965. 107-113. Templeton, Joan. "The Doll House Backlash: Criticism, Feminism, and Ibsen. PMLA   104.1(1989): 28-40. Escaping the Cage of Marriage in Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House Essays Escaping the Cage of Marriage in A Doll House      Ã‚  Ã‚   A bird may have beautiful wings, but within a cage, the beautiful wings are useless. Within the cage, the bird is not fulfilling the potential for which it was created - it is merely a household decoration.   In Ibsen's symbolic play A Doll House, Nora is the bird, and her marriage is the cage. Externally, Nora is a beautiful creature entertaining her husband with the beautiful images of a docile wife, but internally, she is a desperate creature longing to explore her potential outside the cage of her marriage. In a society dominated by the expectations of men, Nora must choose between the obligations determined by her role as wife in opposition to the obligations of self, in determining her true identity. Within the context of love, she commits forgery, and through this deception, discovers her marriage is nothing more than an illusion, and she nothing more than a doll within Torvald's house. In Act I, the Christmas tree symbolizes the Helmer's marriage. Externally, the tree is beautifully decorated, but internally it is dying because the tree has no roots to feed it. Nora and Helmer are playing the roles that society has taught them. He is the strong provider and protector; Nora is the helpless little woman who depends on him. Like the Christmas tree, the Helmer's marriage is just an image of beauty, dying on the inside. After Krogstad informs Nora that he intends to blackmail her, she tells the maid to bring her the tree and set it in the middle of the floor (center stage) (1581). Nora begins to decorate the tree:    [I'll put c]andles here [and] flowers here. That terrible creature! Talk, talk, talk! There's nothing to it at all. The tree [is] going to be lo... ...ond the cage, the beautiful wings carry the bird into a life worth living. A life where the birds have the opportunity to accomplish the obligations of their creation is the only life worth living.    Works Cited Baruch, Elaine Hoffman. "Ibsen's Doll House: A Myth for Our Time." The Yale Review 69 (1980): 374-387. Gray, Ronald, ed. Ibsen-A Dissenting View: A Study of the Last Twelve Plays. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1961. Ibsen, Henrick. A Doll House. The Bedford Introduction to Literature: Reading, Thinking, Writing. 5th   ed. Ed. Michael Meyer. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1999. 1564-1612. Northram, John. "Ibsen's Search for the Hero." Ibsen: A Collection of Critical Essays. Ed. Rolf Fjelde. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965. 107-113. Templeton, Joan. "The Doll House Backlash: Criticism, Feminism, and Ibsen. PMLA   104.1(1989): 28-40.

Grand Alliance 1945

?Why did the foundations for mistrust and suspicion between the members of the Grand Alliance already exist by 1945? In 1945 the war had been fought on one side by the nations of Great Britain, USA and USSR, the members of the Grand Alliance achieved victory in WW2. It was more important than ever the victorious powers remained united as they faced the enormous task of reconstructing war torn Europe. However, as they sought to do this, their unity was already weakened by the existence of mistrust and suspicions between them.Despite the outward appearance of unity, these nations were fundamentally divided by their ideological rivalry which had already existed between them since 1917: the disagreements and strains they experienced; and their competing aims and ambitions for the future of post-war Europe on which their societies were based. The fundamental struggle between the communist system of USSR and capitalist ideas of USA and Great Britain ideological rivalry is evident to be the most significant explanation for the existence of mistrust and suspicion between them.Due to the fact, it lies at the basis of the other casual factors. The long term issues of their ideological rivalry which was present between the USSR and the West since the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 was a significant contributory factor in the development of a hostile relationship between them. The great power rivalry was evident during the years of 1917 to 1941; the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 saw the rise of Lenin which meant a rise in Communism. It can be said the Soviet foreign policy was driven by communist ideology rather than national security.This was a threat of a totalitarian state. Ideology of Marxism was alien to the USA as left wing politics were unheard of; this was especially threatening as Marxist ideology saw the destruction of capitalist societies such as the USA. Its egalitarian values and its attacks on the freedoms held to be so important in a Liberal Democracy. Truman a dopted a strident policy to combat spread of communism towards the Soviet Union; in 1945 he upbraided USSR’s foreign minister Molotov, over Soviet occupation of Poland.A greater source of fear in the West was the communist belief in the inevitable conflict between capitalism and communism views. The idea of communism succeeding to worldwide revolution and this meant the downfall of capitalism. In addition, Europe faced the growing threat from Nazi Germany. In the years of 1939 saw the introduction of a non-aggression pact between Russia and Germany. Seen by many as what gave Hitler the confidence to invade Poland which sparked WW2.Stalin feared Germany would go against them in war and were not ready arms wise in the battle to fight against them. It can be said Hitler didn’t want to fight war on both East and West fronts, that’s why he wanted to attack Poland, already achieving taking over Czechoslovakia. These approaches were rejected by the British government w hose ideological opposition to Fascist Germany. Their differences in ideology created British suspicions to rise, as Stalin appeared to be confirmed in August, in the view of the British making the outbreak of war in Europe inevitable.1941, when the Grand Alliance was formed, it was out of a mutual need to defeat a common enemy (Hitler. ) Not a natural alliance of allies but an alliance of ideological enemies. The suspicion and mistrust relationship between them continued to exist below the surface. This helps to explain why despite the superficial show of unity, there were extensive dissimilarities and strains in their wartime relationship which further served to fuel the latent hostility between them. The strands in the Grand Alliance were due to the ideological suspicions that arose between them.The disagreements that they experienced in the years building up to 1945, was due to the fact their key personalities and how they dealt with situations. The constraints and pressure they were put in as national leaders, added to their layer of mistrust and suspicion between them. Despite improved relations there were also cracks in the Soviet-American Alliance during the years of 1942 to 1944. Two sides argued about the opening of a second war front against Germany; as Stalin wanted the USA and Great Britain to invade Western Europe in order to relieve pressure on the Red Army in the east.Knowing that Stalin approached a different aspect of leadership, with his dysfunctional personality and suspicious nature, he remained wary of capitalist West authority, actions that the USA choose to take only proved his xenophic style of leadership to be expressed in his government. As early as 1942, Roosevelt promised to this however his following actions contributed to the suspicions. In the end the D Day landings didn’t occur until June 1944; in the meantime millions of Russians had died. The preoccupation with Stains obsession with Soviet security, USA wasn’t i n a position to appreciate USSR deep sense of insecurity in 1945.This delay drove Stalin’s suspicions that USA and Britain were hoping that Germany and the USSR would ‘kill each other off. ’ This theory was viewed by many people; the revisionist. They asserted the USA’s policies of capitalist expansionist such as not helping USSR, was primarily responsible for the onset of the Cold War. The war never saw Russia and the USA fight alongside each other. Also, Soviet spies infiltrated the Manhattan Project in Los Alamos, New Mexico where US scientists were attempting to build the first atomic bomb; this soviet operation was on a massive scale.The residual mutual suspicion and disagreement on specific issues, (the second front) suggests the two sides had already mistrusted each other by 1945; due to their unprecedented cooperation. Considering all the factors, only when you get the opportunity to get them into a close contact that’s when ideology rivalry becomes the most significant factor in the foundations for mistrust and suspicion between the members of the Grand Alliance. The strains caused between them in the build up by 1945, may have been an ultimate trigger to anguish the mistrust and suspicion.Never the less, ideological rivalry is a catalyst in terms of in accelerating a difference between them. Therefore, leading the members to have completely different competing aims and ambitions in post-war Europe. Growing tensions and suspicions between the members of Grand Alliance which already existed through their ideological rivalry and strains steered them to having opposite aims and ambitions in post-war Europe. The reality of Soviet Union and the West having different competing aims and ambitions only put the final layer of the mistrust and suspicion to become an alarming problem.Despite having won the war together, the USA and USSR faced the post-war world with more differences than similarities. Stalin demands regarding Ge rmany where that the future of the Soviet Union was to be secured, to prevent repercussions of the effects of WW2 happen again; such as 2,700,000 of its citizens being killed. Also, the opportunity of friendly governments and he wanted to seek revenge as the whole of Russia was destroyed; 70,000 villages were destroyed. The chances of USSR achieving these aims regarding Germany were unlikely as the West would be against them.The mistrust and suspicions which had already been implanted in the leaders’ minds caused the USA not to contribute, because of the threat of impact in ideological differences. However, they did agree in the principle of dividing and occupying Germany among the victory and have a shared goal of continued cooperation after war; this could re-kindle the trust between them. In 1944, they had different ideology which was based on their different economic and political ideas within their government. This was evident in their communist and capitalist ideas.USA had a very fixed idea about the shape of the world economy after the war. USA had become strong advocates of free trade, the unrestricted exchange of goods between nations based on their capitalist ideas. Individual countries should operate in Open Door policies, having production and distribution of goods should be on responsibility of a private sector and not the state. However, USA aims and ambitions for a free market were completely different to those of USSR government, they saw the preference of the command economy and state control necessary.The economy of the government was organised along the communist financial principles, a command economy. In addition, their aims and ambitions also differed in political ideology. Where the USA was in favour of (liberal democracy) democracy and right, a system where by freedom of speech was apparent which formed the basis of the post-war Europe. These rights were unheard of in the USSR and were not seen as fundamental or important; as the y were in contrast to the ideas of USA.The fear of capitalist ideas spreading towards the East added to the mistrust and suspicion of Stalin; as his role was an expansionist communist. They believed in (one-party state) freedom of speech and dissents were not tolerated in any basis, within a party or society at large. Along with that, the recent devastating effects of WW2 for Russia, Stalin pursued in creating a belt of friendly states on Russia’s western border. USSR had experience mistrust and twice in Stalin’s lifetime Russia had been invaded by Germany through these eastern neighbours, he longed for a sense of security.But, Roosevelt wanted no empires or sphere of influence in the world. He believed that all states had no right to self-determination. Their differences in post-war agreements added tension in their fragile relationship. These events would sow the seeds for the eventual collapse of the Grand Alliance; these can be detected in the agreements made at Ya lta even though ironically these marked the highpoint of allied unity. Ideological rivalry and a history of mistrust and suspicions made the potential for the continuation of Grand Alliance to deteriorate.Contrasting post-war visions held by the USA and USSR reflected their different value systems, different historical experience and different security needs. The chances of them working together in a complacent way were stacked against them as they were expected to cooperate in the reconstruction of post-war Europe. Ideological rivalry was extremely important in whether the members of Grand Alliance trusted or grew intense suspicions on each other by 1945, as it was an inner-deep layer of foundation which hidden their capitalism and communism ideology differences.The long term effect of mistrust and suspicion had only been waiting underneath the layer of the foundations to be exposed, through their close proximity of being allies with one another. That’s when their difference s and strains come to light. Dissimilarities in the Grand Alliance were fundamentally being reflected on their ideological differences in their economic and political state. Therefore, creating a complete contrast in competing aims and ambitions in post-war Europe; between capitalist West and communist Soviet Union.

Social Structure of the Society

?MINISTERY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS Belarus State Economic University REFERAT: â€Å"SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF THE SOCIETY† Minsk 2008 What is social structure of the society? Any object has its structure. As the noun â€Å"structure† is rendered as â€Å", , †, structure is defined as functional interdependence of elements constituting the carcass of an object. The society has social structure. The concept of social structure was pioneered by G. Simmel, then developed by K. Marx, E. Durkheim but became most known due to T. Parsons who created structural functionalism. There are various approaches to studying social structure of the society but they didn’t avoid influence of structural functionalism in any way. Due to the functionalist perspective, social structure is the carcass of a social whole (society or its part) the elements of which are invariable in time, interdependent of each other and largely determine the functioning of the whole in general and its members in particular. The focus is made on both interdependence – it’s like a house: take some brick off the wall and the whole building may ruin, and function – take a log: it can be burnt to get warm or used as construction material to build a house. In other words, structural functionalism analyzes parts of the society in terms of their purpose within the whole. It’s clear that social structures of ancient and modern societies differ from each other. This difference is caused by diachronic changes taking place in the society: although the structure presents a stable carcass, it is stable or invariable only for a definite period of time, and historically it changes. Social structure is qualitative certainty of the society which means that change in structure leads to radical, qualitative change in the society. Structure ensures stability required for the functioning of associated social elements which accumulate quantitative changes up till the moment when they turn to quality, and a need for structural changes in the social object rises. For instance, development of the bourgeoisie and proletariat as classes and formation of new relations of production lead to a bourgeoisie revolution and change of the socio-economic system. Social structure is characterized by the following main attributes: hierarchy – vertical and horizontal arrangement of structural elements which is based on their unequal access to authority, income, social prestige etc. interconnection of structural elements which is realized through exchange of resources, information, sharing values etc. ; differentiation into the smallest elements and their integration into the whole; flexibility, capacity to change so it is an important part of the management. Traditionally, theorists identify the following types of social structure: socio-demographic, socio-class, socio-ethnic, socio-professional, socio-confessional etc. No doubt, any social object has its structure. For instance, at analyzing a labour collective we may consider employees within the socio-professional structure: those who got secondary, vocational and higher education, scientific qualifications, representatives of various professions, specializations, their levels of qualification. The socio-demographic structure suggests analysis of employees according to the age and gender: the young up to 30, middle-aged, those of pre-pension and pension age, males and females. There are different types of social structure. A famous Russian theorist M. N. Rutkevich identifies three basic types. The first one characterizes the process of historical development of mankind, i. e. a global structure of human society consisting of nations, states and their various associations. The second type comprises relations between various spheres or subsystems of social life. The third type comprises relations between social groups and other communities of people. The last two types reflect some settled approaches to consider social structure. In social structures of the second type their elements are viewed as relatively independent subsystems or spheres of social life (politics, economy etc). Their number is a point for debate. For instance, G. Hegel and F. Engels spoke of politics, economy and family; modern theorists perceive four spheres: culture, politics, legislation and economy although they don’t deny that other spheres can also be seen in religion, science or in family. Anyway, less debated is a position of the Russian researcher A. I. Kravchenko who divides the society into economic, political, social and spiritual spheres. Economic sphere includes four types of activities – production, distribution, exchange and consumption. It provides eans for increasing the material welfare of the society: enterprises, banks, markets, money flows and the like that enables the society to use available resources (land, labour, capital and management) in order to produce the amount of goods and services sufficient enough to satisfy people’s essential needs in food, shelter and leisure. About 50% of the economically active population take part in the economic sphere as the young, old, disabled do not produce material wealth. But indirectly 100% of the population participate in the economic sphere as consumers of created goods and services. Political sphere includes the head of the state and the state bodies such as government and parliament, local bodies of power, the army, the police, taxation and customs bodies which together constitute the state and political parties which are not part of the state. Its objective is to realize the goals of the society: to ensure the social order, settle conflicts arisen between partners (employers, employees and trade unions), defend the state frontiers and sovereignty, impose new laws, collect taxes etc. But its main objective is to legalize ways of struggle for power and defend the power obtained by a particular class or group. The objective of political parties is to legally defend the diversified political interests of different, very often opposite, groups of the population. Spiritual sphere includes culture, science, religion and education and their artifacts such as monuments and establishments of culture, pieces of arts, research and learning institutions, temples and cathedrals, mass media etc. If science is aimed at discovering new knowledge in various spheres, education should translate this knowledge to the future generations in a most effective way, for schools and universities are built, new programs and teaching methods are worked out, qualified teachers are trained. Culture is designed to create values of arts, exhibit them in museums, galleries, libraries etc. Culture also comprises religion which is considered the pivot of spiritual culture in any society as it gives sense to human life and determines basic moral norms. Social sphere embraces classes, social layers, nations associated by their relations and interactions. The given sphere of the society is understood as narrow and wide. In its wide meaning the social sphere is a totality of organizations and establishments that are in charge of the population’s wealth; they are shops, transport means, communal and consumer services, establishments of catering, medicine, communication, leisure and recreation. Thus, as such the social sphere covers almost all classes and layers – the rich, the poor and the middle class. In its narrow meaning the social sphere is designed for the members of the society who are regarded as socially unprotected (pensioners, unemployed, with low incomes or with many children etc) and the establishments that provide their service, namely, the bodies of social security (including social insurance) of both local and national subordination. In this case, the social sphere is designed for the poorer layers of the population. There are other approaches as to the number of parts or spheres of the society but they are all united by a view that social subsystems cannot exist as isolated. They are arranged in a pattern of relationships that, together, make the system. The social naturally penetrates into the productive and managerial spheres since people of different nationalities, ages, sexes and confessions can work together at an enterprise, on the one hand. On the other hand, if the country’s economy doesn’t perform its main objective to satisfy the population with the sufficient amount of goods and services, the number of jobs doesn’t increase, there may arise negative consequences in the society. For instance, the money is short to pay wages and pensions, unemployment appears, the living standards of the socially unprotected layers are decreasing, crimes are increasing etc. In other words, success or recession in one sphere has a great influence on prosperity in the other one. The third type of social structure is best developed by structural functionalists who assert that structure arises out of face-to-face interactions of people. Interactions make up patterns which are independent of the particular individual, because patterns are determined by social norms and values of the given society. For instance, somebody needs money. He can earn it, but if in some society robbery or burglary is not disapproved of, he may rob someone to reach the purpose. So patterns exert a force which shapes behaviour and identity. That’s why T. Parsons and his supporters define social structure as the way in which the society is organized into predictable relationships, or invariable patterns of social interaction called institutions. Social structure does not concern itself with the people forming the society or their social organizations, neither does it study who are the people or organizations forming it, or what is the ultimate goal of their relations. Social structure deals rather with the very structure of their relations – how they are organized in a pattern of relationships, or institution. So due to structural functionlism, structural elements of the society are social institutions and social groupings; structural units are social norms and values. Social groupings and communities Social groupings are social groups, social classes and layers, communities, social organizations, social statuses and roles. A group is a number of people or things which we class together, so that they form a whole. In our minds we could group any assortment of people together. For instance, you could group together Phillip Kirkorov, your nearest relative, the person who sat opposite you last time you were on a bus, Santa Clause and a shop-assistant from the Hippo market in Serebryanka. But a social group, however, means more than just an assortment of people. There must be something to hold them together as a whole. To be a social group, people must: interact with one another, perceive themselves as a group. Social group is an assortment of people associated by a socially significant distinction, people who interact together in an orderly way and perceive themselves or perceived by others as a group. Any social group is characterized by a number of attributes: interaction within a group is realized on the basis of shared norms, values and expectations about one another’s behaviour; groups develop their own internal structure: kernel and periphery, norms, value, statuses and roles; they can be rigid and formal or loose and flexible; there is a sense of belonging, individuals identify with the group; outsiders are distinguished from members and treated differently; groups are formed for a purpose – specific or diffuse; eople in a group tend to be similar, and the more they participate, the more similar they become. There are a lot of classifications of social groups. The first one embraces statistical and real groups. A statistical group is an assortment of people differentiated by a definite characteristic that can be measured. For instance, citizens are people living in formal settlements called cities. A real group possesses a number of characteristics describing i ts immanent essence. So, citizens are people living in cities, who live an urban way of life with highly diversified labour (mainly industrial and information kinds) and leisure activities, with high professional and social mobility, high frequency of human contacts in formal communication etc. According to this definition, only a part of the statistical group of citizens comply with the criterion of being urbanites, or not everyone who lives in city can belong to the real group of citizens. Another type is a reference group as any group we use to evaluate ourselves, but it doesn’t necessarily mean we must belong to it. It is like a target group in the market: a target group of black BMW cars is composed of people with high income, of a certain age, males etc. David is a person with such characteristics but he doesn’t like BMWs. He prefers Volvos. The normative function of the reference group is to set and enforce standards of conduct and belief. Its comparison function is viewed as a standard by which people can measure themselves or others. For instance, we compare confessional groups to examine some features, let’s say, Jews and Protestants, and find out that Jews display 20% greater tolerance. So if you are a Jew, you’re perceived by others as a more tolerant person. Social groups can also be classified according to their size, character of organization, emotional depth, accomplished objective etc. According to size, groups can be small, middle-sized and large ones. Small social groups, normally small in number, are characterized by human interactions in the form of direct contacts like in families. The smallest groups are stable and more constraining, but offer more intimacy and individuality. As size increases, freedom increases, but intimacy declines and the emerging group structure tends to limit individuality. Contacts are frequent and intensive; members take each other into account as they group together on the basis of shared norms, values and expectations about one another’s behaviour. As more people are added to the group (up to 20), complexity increases, subdivisions appear. Middle-sized social groups are relatively stable communities of people working at the same enterprise or organization, members of a social association or those sharing one limited but large enough territory, for example, people living in one district, city or region. The first type is called labour-organizational groups, the second one – territorial groups. People are united into labour-organizational groups to accomplish a certain purpose or objective that determines its composition, structure and type of activities, interpersonal interaction and relations. Large social groups are stable numerous collections of people, who act together in socially significant situations in the context of the country or state, or their unions. They are classes, social layers, professional groups, ethnic groupings (nationalities, nations and races), demographic groupings (the young, the old, males and females) etc. With regard to all of them, a social group is a patrimonial, collective concept. People’s affiliation to a large group is determined by a number of socially significant distinctions such as class affiliation, demographic factors, form and character of social activities etc. In large social groups, interaction bears both direct and indirect character. According to the character of organization, groups are distinguished as formal and informal ones. Formal groups are collections of people whose activities are regulated by formal documents such as legislative norms, charters, instructions, registered rules, bans or permissions sanctioned by the society, organization etc. At performing some activities members of the formal group are in terms of subordination, or hierarchically structured submission. Such groups are academic groups, labour organizations, military units etc. Informal groups don’t have formally registered grounds for their existence. They are formed on the basis of common interests or values, respect, personal affection etc. which cohere individuals into more or less stable entities such as a group of friends, a musical band, Internet chatters etc. Behaviour of their members is regulated by special non-written laws and rules. In such groups membership is voluntary, and members may resign at any time. Due to emotional depth of interrelations within the group, primary and secondary groups are differentiated. A primary group is, as a rule, a small social group whose members share personal and enduring emotional relations which are established on the basis of direct contacts reflecting the members’ personal characteristics. The examples are a family, a group of friends, a research group etc. A secondary group is a large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a special interest or activity. In such a group people’s ability to perform particular functions, not their personal qualities, is highlighted. This is the way that social organizations with their departments and job hierarchy are set up and function. The personality of any of its member is of very little significance for the organization. As roles in the secondary group are strictly fixed (John is a student, Mr. Brown is the dean), very often its members know too little about each other. Besides, in the social organization of an enterprise, both roles and ways of communication are fixed. If a student is in trouble, he can’t apply straight to the University rector but first to the tutor, dean or prorector, then to the rector. While studying human society sociologists are interested in larger groups of people at the meso – and macro-levels, or those ones called social communities. There are a lot of definitions of such a phenomenon but theorists agree that members of the community should possess a similar quality such as age, gender, job, nationality etc. and consider similarity as one of the main distinctions of the community. Examples are natural-historical communities like tribes, families, nationalities, nations and races; mass groups like crowds, TV audience etc. A more important distinction of the social community is social interaction between its members. Interactions may be more enduring that determines a long-term existence of communities such as nations, races, and less enduring that is typical for occasional communities such as crowds, lines, passengers etc. But even occasional community with weak ties has its patrimonial and specific distinctions, regulating collective behaviour. Besides similarity and social interaction, a social community also suggests that the actions undertaken by its members are oriented by expectations of behaviour of other individuals in the community. It encourages people’s deeper solidarity that forms a cohered group – a basic element of the society. Judging by it, a social community may be defined as natural or social grouping of people characterized by a common feature, more or less enduring social relations, goal attainment, common patterns of behaviour and speculation. A social class is also considered as a structural element of the society. Although approaches differ, in general the concept of a class is connected with people’s relation to the means of production and character of acquiring wealth under a market economy. The known examples of a class are the nobility, bourgeoisie and proletariat. In each class society there are fundamental and non-fundamental classes. Fundamental classes are distinguished by a dominating way to produce material wealth within the socio-economic system (feudal, capitalist etc), for instance, under capitalism its fundamental classes are the bourgeoisie and proletariat. Non-fundamental classes are available because the rests of the previous relations of production are still kept in the society or new ones are emerging. A social layer is an assortment of people who are distinguished by their social status and who perceive themselves cohered by this community. A social status is one’s position (place) in the social structure of the society connected with other positions by the system of rights and obligations. The status of a teacher has its meaning only with regard to a student, not to a passer-by or doctor. The teacher should translate knowledge to the student, check up how knowledge is learnt and assess it etc. The student should regularly attend lectures, prepare for seminars, pass credits and examinations in time etc. In other words, the teacher and the student enter into social relationships as representatives of two large social groups, as bearers of social statuses. Social status is often considered as the â€Å"standing†, the honour or prestige attached to one’s position in the society. In modern societies, occupation is usually thought of as the main dimension of status, but even in modern societies other memberships or affiliations (such as ethnic groups, religion, gender, voluntary associations, hobby) can have an influence. For instance, a doctor will have a higher status than a factory worker but in some societies a white Anglo-Saxon Protestant doctor will have a higher status than an immigrant doctor of minority religion. Every person can have several social positions, or statuses called by R. Merton a status set. Among them there must be the main status; it is a status used by the individual to identify himself or by other people to indentify a definite person. For males it is their occupation (a lawyer, banker, worker), for females it is a place of living (a housewife) but there exist other variants. It means that the main status is of relative character as it is not directly associated with gender, race or occupation. The main status is one that determines the person’s way and style of life, patterns of behaviour, friends etc. Sociologists differentiate between social and personal statuses: social status identifies the person’s position in the society which he occupies as a representative of a large social group (occupation, class, nationality, gender, age or religion); personal status is the person’s position in a small group identified by how the members of the group estimate and percieve him due to his personal qualities. Being a leader or outsider, winner or loser means to occupy a certain position in the system of interpersonal, not social relations. Statuses are also distinguished as ascribed and achieved ones. Ascribed status is a social status a person is given from birth or assumes involuntarily later in life. For example, a person born into a wealthy family has a high ascribed status. Achieved status is a sociological term denoting a social position that a person assumes voluntarily which reflects personal skills, abilities, and efforts. Examples of achieved status are being an Olympic athelete, a criminal, or a teacher. Achieved statuses are distinguished from ascribed statuses by virtue of being earned. Most positions are a mixture of achievement and ascribment; for instance, a person who has achieved the status of being a doctor or lawyer in Western societies is more likely to have the ascribed status of being born into a wealthy family. The mentioned statuses are considered basic statuses which include kinship, demographic, economic, political and occupational statuses. There are also a number of non-basic statuses such as those of a passer-by, driver, reader, TV-watcher, witness of a road casualty etc. They are temporal positions and their rights and obligations are not registered as they are hardly fixed. No doubt, the status of a professor determines much in life of a certain person; as for his status of a patient, it does not. If a social status identifies a particular position of an individual in a given social system, a social role represents the way that he is expected to behave in a particular social situation. Each individual plays many roles in the society; in one situation he is a boss, in another – a friend, in the third – father etc. All roles that a person plays are called a role set. Roles are identified as ascribed if we are forced to play and as achieved if we choose to play them. The first is a role of a son or daughter in relations with a parent, the second – a subordinate with a boss. Roles have two further dimensions: the prescribed aspect of a role, or role expectations, and role performance. The prescribed element in any role provides a norm-based framework governing the way people are generally supposed to interact. People expect one conduct from a banker and quite another – from an unemployed person. Role performance is what a person eally performs within this framework. Each time a person who performs a certain role builds his behaviour according to the expectations of the social milieu. If his actual behaviour differs from what is expected, it means that conformity to culturally appropriate roles and socially supported norms is not created. Behaviour, which doesn’t correspond to the status, is not considered an appropriate role. F or instance, if somebody came into the classroom, introduced himself as a teacher but then started painting the wall or washing the windows, his behaviour is a role but not that of a teacher. In the society various social control mechanisms exist to restore conformity or to segregate the nonconforming individuals from the rest of society. These social control mechanisms range from sanctions imposed informally – for example, sneering and gossip – to the activities of certain formal organizations, like schools, prisons, and mental institutions. Social institutions Another structural element of the society is social institutions. These are not buildings, but organizations, or mechanisms of social structure, governing the behaviour of two or more people. Institutions are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual human lives and intentions. For example, the institution of the family and marriage, of religion etc. American sociologist Erving Goffman (1922-1982) asserts that an institution is a place, like a building, in which activity of a particular kind regularly goes on. He uses this term for somewhere that embraces everything that its inhabitants do – where they live, work, play, sleep, day in day out. Members of the society have a similar mental concept of right and wrong, order and relationships, and patterns of good (positive values). As the broadest organizers of individuals’ beliefs, drives and behaviours, social institutions evolved to address separate needs of the society, for instance, the military institution evolved out of the need for defense. Each society has a number of needs but those of fundamental character are only five. Consequently, there are five fundamental social institutions ensuring social needs in: procreation of the population (that of the family and marriage); social order and defense (the state, political institutions); getting means for existence (the production, economic institutions); translating knowledge, socialization of the growing-up enerations, training personnel (education in its broad meaning including science and culture); solving spiritual problems, looking for sense of life (religion). So social institutions can be defined as organized patterns of beliefs and behaviours centered on basic social needs, adapting to specific segment of the society in question. American so ciologist T. Veblen is the founding father of institutionalization as he was a first to give a detailed description of social institutions in his book, The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899). He showed that evolution of the society is a process of natural selection of social institutions which by their nature present habitual ways to react to stimuli created by external changes. Early mankind is known for promiscuity or non-regulated sex relations that could result in genetic degeneration. Gradually such relations began to be limited by bans. The first ban was that of incest, forbidding sex between kinship relatives, such as mother and son, brother and sister etc. The given ban is the first social norm, considered the most important in history. Later, other norms regulating sex relations appeared. People learnt to survive and adapt to life by organizing their relations with norms. Norms of family and marriage behaviour translated from generation to generation became collective habits, customs, traditions that regulated people’s way of life and their thinking. Those who broke such traditions (deviants) were punished (sanctioned). This is the way how the most ancient social institution of the family and marriage might have emerged. And this is the way why norms and values have become structural units of the society. There are three terms to be differentiated in the related area such as â€Å"institute†, â€Å"institution† and â€Å"institutionalization†. To institute something is to bring it into use, set it up, or establish it by practice. A father might speak of instituting some changes in his family, perhaps forcing the children to be respectful, and not giggle at his words. An institute may be something that has been set up, for example, an association of women calls itself the â€Å"Women’s Institute†. If institution is spoken about, it is meant a totality of customs or practices that was established by the members of a particular society, by God, or just an established and respected practice (with no reference to its origin). Institutions are used about parts of the society, not the whole. As a society is created by the interaction of people, they establish ways of interacting that are acceptable or unacceptable. When a way of behaviour is both emotionally satisfying and leads to rewards from others, it becomes institutionalized. The way by which behaviour, custom or practice is institutionalized, is called institutionalization. For instance, institutionalization of any science means working out various standards, laws, setting up research institutes, laboratories, faculties, departments at universities, also publishing textbooks, monographs and journals, training specialists in the area etc. Thus, the concept of a social institution defines an aggregate of people whose activities in a certain area are regulated with inflexible systems of social, legal or other controls by organizations originally created for beneficial purposes and intents. As any structure, it is presented by its structural elements although some sociologists argue against, defining them as attributes. Structural elements of the society’s fundamental institutions Institutions Fundamental roles Physical features Symbolic features Family and marriage Mother Father Child House Plot of land Furniture Rings Engagement Marriage ceremony Economy Employer Employee Seller Buyer Enterprise Office Shop Bank Money Securities Trade mark Marketing Politics Head of the state Member of parliament Law-maker Subject of law Public buildings and places Flag Constitution Hymn Law Religion Priest Parishioner Bishop Cathedral Church Chapel Christ Bible Confirmation Education Teacher Student Professor School University Textbook Qualification Diploma Degree At the same time fundamental institutions are divided into smaller units called non-fundamental institutions. For instance, economy can’t operate without such practices as production, distribution, market, management, accounting, etc. ; the institution of the family and marriage includes such practices as martenity, vendetta, sworn brotherhood etc. So non-fundamental institutions are social practices or customs, for example, vendetta or celibacy can be identified either as a tradition or settled practice. Both are right as the fundamental institution includes both traditions and practices. If the purpose of fundamental institutions is to satisfy the basic needs of the society, non-fundamental institutions perform specialized objectives, serve particular traditions or satisfy non-fundamental needs. For instance, a higher school as a social institution meets the social need in training highly qualified specialists. By its character of organization, institutions are subdivided into formal and informal ones. The activities of formal institutions are regulated by strictly settled directions such as law, charter, instructions etc. Formal institutions are often bureaucracies in which the functions of bureaucrats are impersonal, i. e. that their functions are performed independently of their personal qualities. In informal institutions playing a very important role in interpersonal interaction, their aims, methods, means to achieve objectives are not settled formally and not fixed in the charter. For instance, organizing their leisure time, teenagers follow their rules of game, or norms which allow them to solve conflicts. But these norms are fixed in public opinion, traditions or customs, in other words, in informal sanctions. Very often public opinion or custom is a more efficient means to control an individual’s behaviour than legislative laws or other formal sanctions. For instance, people prefer being punished by their formal leaders than being blamed by colleagues or friends. Both formal and informal institutions have functions. To function means to bring benefit. So, the function of a social institution is the benefit that it contributes to the society. In other words, the outcomes or end-products of the system, institution and the like are referred to as its function. If besides benefit there is damage or harm, such actions are referred to as dysfunction. For instance, the function of a higher education is to train highly qualified specialists. If the institution functions badly due to some circumstances (lack of personnel, poor teaching, or methodical and material basis), the society will not get specialists of the required level. It means that the institution dysfunctions. Functions and dysfunctions can be manifest if they are formally declared, perceived by everybody and obvious, and latent which are hidden, or not declared. To manifest functions of a secondary school those of getting literacy, enough knowledge to enter university, vocational training, learning basic values of the society may be referred to. Its latent functions are getting a definite social status which enables to become ranked higher than those who are illiterate, making stable friends etc. Functions and dysfunctions are of relative, not of absolute character. Each of them can have two forms – manifest and latent. In one and the same time both a function and dysfunction may be manifest for some members of the society and latent – for the other ones. For instance, some people consider important to obtain fundamental knowledge at university, others – to establish necessary links and relations. Latent functions differ from dysfunctions by that they don’t bring harm. They only show that the benefit from any institution (system etc) can be larger than it is declared. To sum it up, each of the institutions reflects a different aspect of the society. Each of them performs a different role in the society fostering spiritual, social, or educational development. On a larger scale, these organizations exemplify the links that bind a society together. BASIC CONCEPTS Achieved status – a social position that a person assumes voluntarily which reflects personal skills, abilities, and efforts. Ascribed status – a social position a person is given from birth or assumes involuntarily later in life. Class – an assortment of people united by their relations to the means of production and character of acquiring wealth under a market economy. Dysfunction – bring harm. Flexibility – a capacity to change. Formal group – a collection of people whose activities are regulated by formal documents such as legislative norms, charters, instructions, egistered rules, bans or permissions sanctioned by the society, organization etc. Function – bring benefit. Informal group – a group formed on the basis of common interests or values, respect, personal affection etc. which cohere individuals into more or less stable entity. Institutionalization – the way by which behaviour, custom or practice is institutionalized. Large social group – a stable numerous collection of people who act together in socially significant situations in the context of the country or state, or their unions. Latent function – a function if it is not formally declared, perceived by people or obvious. Main status – a status used by an individual to identify himself or by other people to indentify a definite person. Manifest function – a function if it is formally declared, perceived by everybody and obvious. Middle-sized group – a relatively stable community of people who work at the same enterprise or organization, members of a social association or those sharing one limited but large enough territory. Personal status – a person’s position in a small group identified by how the members of the group estimate and percieve him due to his personal qualities. Prescribed element (role expectation) – what provides a norm-based framework governing the way people are generally supposed to interact. Primary group – a small social group whose members share personal and enduring emotional relationships which are established on the basis of direct contacts reflecting the members’ personal characteristics Real group – any group of people possessing a number of characteristics describing its immanent essence. Reference group – any group one can use to evaluate oneself, but it doesn’t necessarily mean one must belong to it. Role performance – what a person really performs within the norm-based framework. Role set – all roles that a person plays. Secondary group – a large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a special interest or activity. Social community – a natural or social grouping of people characterized by a common feature, more or less enduring social relationships, goal attainment, common patterns of behaviour and speculation. Small group – a group normally small in number, characterized by human interactions in the form of direct contacts like in families. Social group – an assortment of people cohered by a socially significant distinction, people who interact together in an orderly way and perceive themselves or perceived by others as a group. Social institution – organized patterns of beliefs and behaviours centered on basic social needs, adapting to specific segment of the society; an organization, or mechanism of social structure, governing the behaviour of two or more individuals; a totality of customs or practices that was established by the members of a particular society, by God, or just an established and respected practice. Social layer – an assortment of people who are distinguished by their status and who perceive themselves cohered by this community. Social role – the way that a person is expected to behave in a particular social situation. Social status –a person’s position in the society which he occupies as a representative of a large social group. Social structure – the carcass of a social whole (society or its part) the elements of which are invariable in time, interdependent of each other and largely determine the functioning of the whole in general and its members in particular (functionalist perspective); the way in which the society is organized into predictable relationships, patterns of social interaction. Statistical group – a group of people differentiated by a definite characteristic that can be measured. Status set – the number of statuses which a person has or acquired. Structure – functional interdependence of elements constituting the carcass of an object. Additional literature 1. Blau P. Exchange and Power in Social Life. (3rd edition). – New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers, 1992. – 354 p. 2. Bourdeiu P. Logic of Practice. – Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990. – 382 p. 3. Coser L. The Functions of Social Conflict. – Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1956. – 188 p. 4. Durkheim E. The Division of Labour in Society. – New York, NY: Free Press; 1997. – 272 p. 5. Durkheim E. Suicide. – New York, NY: Free Press; 1951. – 345 p. 6. Sztompka P. Sociology in Action: The Theory of Social Decoding. – Oxford: Polity Press, 2001. – 415 p.