International business administration - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 19 Words: 5844 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Management summary In this thesis the relationship between the predominant leadership styles in the academic literature, transformational and transactional leadership, and organization citizenship behaviour will be discussed and analyzed. In the transformational leadership   style the leader motivates and inspires followers by gaining their trust and respect. The leader communicates the goals, visions and missions in a clear way and stimulates his followers to go beyond the call of duty. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "International business administration" essay for you Create order Transactional leadership is based on an exchange relationship between the leader and followers. Followers receive rewards when they perform according to the standards and requirements set by their leader. Organizational citizenship behaviour concerns those voluntary acts performed by   individual employees that are of a discretionary and voluntary nature and contribute to the effectiveness of the organization. However, when organizations exert citizenship pressures on their employees this might have some serious consequences on their workforce. These high levels of pressure to be a good citizen can result in job stress, work-family conflicts, work-leisure conflicts and might even result in quitting intensions among employees. This thesis will also focus on the desirability of OCBs within the organization and the dangers of citizenship pressures. Chapter 1.Introduction to the thesis 1.1 Problem Indication Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) has been a popular subject among several fields of study for the past couple of decades. OCBs are positive, individual and voluntary acts performed by employees which go beyond their job descriptions and are not directly rewarded or monitored (Organ, 1988). According to Katz Kahn (1966) these kinds of behaviour are important to organizations because organizations depend on behaviour of their employees that go further than their job description even though these behaviours are not actively monitored and enforced. Because of the voluntary nature of the positive acts the theory of OCBs seems to be very positive for both the individuals within an organization and the effectiveness of the organization as whole. OCB has been linked with loyalty, obedience, voluntarism, helping behaviours, altruism and other positive traits in many previous studies throughout the years (Bolino, Turnley, Niehoff, 2004; Organ, Podsakoff, MacKenzie, 2006). But recent studies have also investigated the darker side of OCB. The problem lies with the discretionary and voluntary nature of OCB. There are situations in which employees feel like OCB is expected of them, this citizenship pressure can lead to job stress, work conflicts and even quitting intensions (Bolino,Turnley, Gilstrap, Suazo, 2010). The first part of this thesis will go further into the dynamics of OCB and will look at both the positive and negative side of OCB. The second part of this thesis will address the relation between leadership styles and OCB. Leadership styles are of great influence on the OCBs of employees (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978). In the studies of Bass (1985) and Burns (1978)   a distinction has been made between transformational and transactional leadership. These different styles of leadership have different implications on the degree of OCB among the employees (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978). 1.2 Problem statement The problem statement of this thesis is formulated in one single question: How do the different styles of leadership influence organizational citizenship behaviour ? 1.3 Research Questions The research questions that are derived from the problem indication are: To what degree is OCB desired within an organization? What is the influence of transactional leadership on OCB? What is the influence of transformational leadership on OCB? 1.4 Methodology The type of research that will be conducted for this thesis is a descriptive research. The thesis will be a literature study which means secondary sources will be gathered and researched (Sekaran, 2008). An analysis of the different variables will be made in order to find the answers to the formulated research questions. The links between the different variables researched in this thesis can be the basis for further empirical research. The main concepts of the research are organizational citizenship behaviour and the transformational (or charismatic) (Yukl, 1999) and transactional leadership types. 1.5 Structure In this thesis the relationship between the two predominant leadership styles and OCB within an organization will be analyzed. The first chapter will get into the dynamics of OCB in order to determine whether or not and to what degree OCB is desirable. This means that both the positive and negative sides of OCB within an organization will be balanced in this chapter. At the end of chapter one the first research question of this thesis will be answered. Chapter two and three will link transformational and transactional leadership with OCB. In these chapters it will become clear how the different styles of leadership stimulate OCB and which leadership style results in the largest amount of OCBs. After these chapters the answer to the problem statement is given in the conclusion. Furthermore, limitations of this research and managerial and academic implications will be discussed. Chapter 2. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour 2.1 Introduction Organizational citizenship behaviour is a topic that has fascinated many researchers and managers for the last couple of decades since Bateman and Organ (1983) were the first to address this topic in 1983. Nowadays in times of economical crises OCB remains an interesting subject, because in a race of the survival of the fittest organizations rely on good citizens to survive. However, recent studies of the past couple of years have reported some negative implications of OCB and have questioned the desirability of OCB (Bolino, Gilstrap, Turnley Suazo, 2010; Korgaard, Meglino, Lester Jeong, 2010; Van Dyne Ellis, 2004). Vardi and Weitz (2003) have reported on the concept of organizational misbehaviour (OMB) as a counterpart to OCB in their studies. In this chapter both the positive and negative implications of OCB and citizenship pressures exerted by the organizations will be discussed.   In order to answer the question whether or not OCB is desirable within an organization the concept of organizational citizenship behaviour has to be explained.. OCB can be defined as individual behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of an organization, according to the study of Organ (1988, p. 4). OCB is behaviour of a constructive nature by the employee, which is not a part of the formal job description (Organ, 1988). According to Moorman, Blakely and Niehoff (1988) employees will engage in OCBs when they feel that that behaviour is justified by the positive actions of the organization and are consistent with the treatment and commitment of the organization. Employees feel the need to repay the organization for the positive treatment and commitment they receive throughout the relationship (Moorman et al., 1988). Research of Kidder (1998) and Stamper and Van Dyne (2001) argues that employees that have a long-term relationship with a firm perform more OCBs than temporary or part-time workers. 2.2 The sunny side of OCB Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine and Bachrach (2000) distinguished thirty forms of citizenship behaviours from the literature on OCB and grouped them in seven dimensions; helping behaviour, sportsmanship, organizational compliance, organizational loyalty, self development, civic virtue and individual initiative. Helping behaviours are voluntary behaviours that help fellow colleagues prevent or solve work related problems. This kind of behaviour includes supporting and cheering for fellow employees and also peacemaking activities when there are times of conflict and struggles between employees (Organ, 1988). Organizational compliance is a form of OCB which regards the following and obeying of organizational procedures and rules by the employees (Borman Motowidlo, 1993). Organizational compliance argues that good citizens follow the rules and procedures of the organization instinctively and precisely, even when they know that they are not being supervised or monitored (Podsakoff et al., 2000).  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Podsakoff et al. (2000) state that organizational compliance is a form of OCB even though it is expected from subordinates to act according the rules and regulations of the company, because in many cases employees do not act according these rules and regulations when they know that they are not being observed or monitored. Thus, according to Podsakoff et al. (2000) employees that follow up the rules and regulations very precisely even when they know that they are not being supervised can be viewed as very good organizational citizens. Sportmanship is a type of OCB which describes the process of coping with all the inevitable problems and inconveniences that are bound to happen at work without complaining (Organ, 1990). According to Podsakoff, et al., (2000) good sportsmanship occurs when employees refrain from complaining when other colleagues cause inconveniences for them. Good sports are willing to make personal sacrifices in the interest of the group and do not showcase a negative attitude when things are not going their way. Furthermore, good sports do not get offended when their suggestions and ideas are not followed up by the rest of the employees in their working environment. Individual initiative is regarded as OCB when a person goes that far beyond the expected level of task-related behaviours that these behaviours can be viewed as voluntary (Podsakoff et al., 2000).   When employees engage in individual initiative they showcase extra effort and enthusiasm in order to increase their task performance or the performance of the organization as a whole. They voluntarily come up with new ideas and innovations in order to increase organizational effectiveness and encourage fellow colleagues to act in the same way (Podsakoff, et al., 2000). Organizational loyalty refers to the strong commitment of employees to the organization throughout the good and the bad times (Graham, 1991), defending the organization against threats from the outside and promoting the organization to people outside the organization (Borman Motowidlo, 1997; George Jones 1997). According to the research of Podsakoff et al. (2000) civic virtue(Organ, 1988)means that employees recognize that they are part of a larger whole and they acknowledge and accept the responsibilities for the effective functioning of their organization. The employees actively look out for opportunities and threats in the environment of their organization. They participate actively in the decision making process of the organization and are constantly acting out of the interest of the company while putting their personal interests aside (Podsakoff et al., 2000).   Self development is citizenship behaviour that occurs when employees voluntarily undertake actions in order to learn and improve their skills, knowledge and capabilities (Podsakoff et al., 2000). The study of George and Brief (1992) states that self development might consist of employees participating in advanced training course, employees undertaking actions in order to keep up with the latest developments in their field; or employees might even learn an entirely new set of skills. Self development behaviour is good citizenship behaviour because employees try to improve and increase their personal contributions to the performance and effectiveness of the organization (George Brief, 1992). These seven dimensions of OCB all describe positive acts and contributions from the employees which benefit the organization. According to Organ Konovsky (1989) these combined contributions of individual employees increase organization effectiveness significantly over time. Because of the positive nature of these citizenship behaviours organizations try to stimulate OCBs among their employees. These citizenship pressures lead to higher levels of OCB within the organization, which is essentially favourable for the company (Bolino,Turnley, Gilstrap Suazo, 2010). However, the stimulation of citizenship behaviours can have a negative effect on the employees because the citizenship pressure to please the organization can result in job stress, quitting intensions and work-family and work-leisure conflicts (Bolino et al., 2010; Greenhaus Beutell, 1985; Reich, 2001; Sauter Murphy, 1995). 2.3 The dark side of OCB One could argue that OCB has a lot of positive implications for an organization based on the dimensions described by Podsakoff et al.(2000). Recent studies however have also shed light on the darker side of OCB (Bolino et al.,2010; Korsgaard Meglino, Lester, Jeong,2010; Van Dyne Ellis, 2004; Vigoda-Gadot, 2006). Organ (1988) implies that OCB is solely a positive phenomenon within an organization, because of the discretionary and voluntary nature of OCB. Furthermore, Organ (1988, p. 4) argues that OCB promotes the effective functioning of an organization. Vigoda-Gadot (2006, p. 79) concludes from the definition of OCB by Organ (1988) that it implies that OCB consists of informal contributions that a participant can choose to make or withhold, without the regard to considerations of sanctions or formal incentives. However, recent studies have countered the discretionary nature of OCB. Korsgaard et al. (2010, p. 277), argue that OCB is based on the norm of reciprocity: the obligation to reciprocate the benefits already received from another (paying you back) and the expected reciprocity that ones actions will stimulate future benefits from another (paying me forward). Vardi and Weitz (2003) have mentioned the concept of organizational misbehaviour (OMB) in their studies as a counterpart to OCB. Organizational misbehaviour is behaviour of a social nature   that harms the interest of the organization.   According to Vardi and Weitz (2003) there are five types of organizational misbehaviour; intra-personal misbehaviour, inter-personal misbehaviour, property misbehaviour, production misbehaviour and political misbehaviour.   OMB can be viewed as the real dark side of employee behaviours. 2.3.1 Citizenship pressure Citizenship pressure occurs when employees feel the pressure to engage in OCBs because their employer tries to stimulate that behaviour by informal compensation (Bolino,Turnley, Girlstrap Suazo, 2010).Citizenship pressure is a phenomenon that differs from individual to individual and it is of a subjective nature (Bolino, et al.,2010). Employees that are regarded as high-self monitors are more likely to give in to citizenship pressures and engage more in citizenship behaviours, because those employees value their image and the way they are perceived by their co-workers and supervisors (Blakely, Andrews, Fuller, 2003). The study of Bolino et al. (2010) has shown that citizenship pressure leads to higher levels of OCB of employees within an organization. Hence, the studies of Korsgaard, et al.(2010) and Bolino, et al.(2010) question both the discretionary and voluntary nature of OCB. Research has shown that managers do take OCBs into account when evaluating their employees and making other decisions (Podsakoff, et al.,2000) Van Dyne and Ellis (2004) state that with citizenship pressure, behaviour that was once voluntary and discretionary can become an obligation. Van Dyne and Ellis (2004) mention the phenomenon of job creep, this situation occurs when employees constantly feel the pressure to do more than their job actually requires of them. The duties of the employees are slowly increased without official recognition of the organization and in time are expected of the employees (Van Dyne Ellis, 2004). Although citizenship pressure may be a positive phenomenon from an organizations point of view because it leads to more OCB, it also is associated with negative consequences for the employees and their organization (Bolino, et al.,2010). The amounts of job stress experienced by the employees are likely to increase in the case of high levels of citizenship pressures (Bolinio, et al.,2010).   Job stress occurs when employees do not have the capabilities and resources that are needed to fulfil their job requirements. The incapability to fulfil these job demands will lead to negative consequences for the emotional and physical state of the employees who experience high levels of job stress (Sauter Murphy, 1995). According to Bolino, Turnley, Gilstrap, Suazo (2010) employees who experience citizenship pressures to behave as a good citizen of the organization may also feel the pressures at home to be a good partner and parent. This work-family conflict is a role conflict that occurs when the work role demands that are required from an employee are not compatible with the demands of the family (Greenhaus Beutell, 1985).   Work-family conflicts may arise when the partners of the employees have difficulties in understanding why their partner chooses to engage in OCBs that are technically not required of them and are not formally rewarded rather than to spend time with their family (Edwards Rothbard, 2000). Research of Flynn (1996) shows that in a situation of high citizenship pressures employees with less demanding family situations engage in more citizenship behaviours than married employees with more responsibilities towards their families. Another conflict related to citizenship pressure is the work-leisure conflict. This conflict arises when employees experience difficulties in balancing their work demands with their personal life and leisure time (Bolino, et al.,2010). The study of Reich (2001) states that employees who are physically away from their working environment, may still be mentally connected to their job. According to Bolino, et al.(2010) these employees experience a conflict between their desires for free time in their personal lives and the desire to be a good organizational citizen in order to receive the benefits that come with that kind of status. The employees who feel citizenship pressures may not enjoy their free time because they are worrying about the situation and problems at work. Furthermore, they may be troubled by the fact that their co-workers might surpass them in terms of productivity and value for the organization when they enjoy their personal time or they may be experiencing feelings of guilt because they are not working (Reich, 2001). This may lead to an increasing tendency among employees to keep in contact with their work office, by means of mobile phones, pagers or email, in order to remain available for their colleagues and superiors (Reich, 2001). These types of conflict caused by citizenship pressure, like the work-leisure conflict and the work-family conflict and the phenomenon of job stress, contribute to the job quitting intensions among the employees (Bolino et al.,2010). The dark side of OCB can be accounted to the citizenship pressures exerted by the organization. When an organization pressures   employees to perform citizenship behaviours this can result in negative consequences for the state of mind of the employees (Bolino et al., 2010; Edwards Rothbard, 2000; Greenhaus Beutell, 1985; Reich, 2001). This in turn can lead to decreases in productivity and effectiveness for the organization, because employees in a bad state of mind are more likely to leave the organization or work inefficiently (Bolino et al., 2010). 2.4 Desirability of OCB within the organization OCB in its core essence is desirable for organizations because those citizenship behaviours are linked with helping behaviours, loyalty and commitment to the organization, the following of rules and regulations, creativity and innovation and going the extra mile (Podsakoff, et al.,2000) .   These citizenship behaviours are characterized as positive contributions to an organization and its productivity, effectiveness and social climate (Moorman et al., 1988; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, et al.,2000). This makes it difficult for one to argue that citizenship behaviours are not desirable within an organization. However, there is also a darker side to OCB. These negative side effects of OCB occur when the voluntary and discretionary nature of citizenship behaviours is removed because of citizenship pressures exerted by the organization on their employees (Bolino et al.,2010; Korsgaard et al.2010) . Citizenship pressures can result in job stress, work-family conflicts, work-leisure conflicts and eventually in quitting intensions among employees (Bolino et al., 2010; Edwards Rothbard, 2000; Greenhaus Beutell, 1985; Reich, 2001).   Effectiveness and productivity of employees decrease when they experience job stress or work-family or work leisure conflicts, which in turn also has a negative influence on the company as a whole (Bolino, et al.,2010). In conclusion, one could argue that citizenship behaviours are a positive and desired phenomenon for an organization when the negative consequences of citizenship pressures exerted by the organization are not taken into account. However, citizenship pressures result in more OCBs among employees and thus organizations are inclined to exert those pressures on their employees (Bolino et al.,2010). Thus, organizations have to balance the positive and negative consequences of citizenship pressures and OCBs in order to maximize   the value of the employees for the company. Because citizenship pressures has different outcomes for each individual employee, the organization and group leaders could benefit from a thorough analysis of their workforce (Bolino et al., 2010). For instance, employees who are considered to be high self-monitors are more likely to engage in citizenship behaviours when they feel citizenship pressure, because they care about how they are being perceived by their co-workers and leaders (Blakely et al., 2003) Chapter 3.The transformational and transactional leadership styles 3.1 Introduction Leadership has always been an interesting topic for researchers from different fields. According to Tannenbaum, Weschler and Masarik (1961, p. 24) leadership is: interpersonal influence exercised in situations and directed, through the communication process, toward the attainment of a specified goal or goals. According to Wayne, Shore Liden (1997) leadership is important because the exchange between a manager and his follower   is the most important factor in determining employee behaviour. In the literature a distinction has been made by Burns (1978) and Bass (1985) between transactional leadership and transformational leadership. Burns (1978) reports that transactional and transformation leadership are complete opposites. Bass (1985), however, argues that transformational leaders may also use transactional leadership behaviours in certain situations. The concepts of transactional and transformational leadership will be explained in this chapter. 3.2 Transactional leadership The study of Bass (1985) shows that transactional leaders make the tasks and responsibilities of the followers clear and also promise the followers compensation for when their tasks are performed according to the standards. According to Deluga (1990) transactional leadership is an exchange process in which rewards and punishments are administered. Transactional leaders exchange financial rewards for productivity or deny rewards when the productivity of the followers is lacking (Bass Riggio, 2006). The relationship between the leader and his followers in a system of transactional leadership is focused on self interest and based on mutual dependency (Lagamarsino Cardona, 2003). Bass (1990) concludes in his research that there are four different types of transactional leadership. Contingent reward: The leader sets up a contract based on performance and rewards, solid performance is compensated with rewards. When goals are met the employees will get recognition for their accomplishments. Contingent reward leader behaviours have shown to have a positive relation with performance and follower attitudes (Avolio, Waldman Einstein, 1988; Waldman, Bass Yammarino, 1990). Laissez-Faire: In this particular form of transactional leadership the leader avoids making decisions and steps away from any responsibilities. The subordinates have to fulfil their tasks on their own. According to Dubinsky, Yammarino, Jolson, Spangler (1995) this type of leader is indifferent, frequently absent,   inattentive and does not influence the workforce. Management by exception (active): The leader actively looks for errors and mistakes in the work process. When the tasks performance of the employees is not on the required level the leader will intervene and he will try to put the employees back on the right track. Management by exception (passive): The leader only undertakes actions when the level of output and requirements and standards are not met by his subordinates. All these types of transactional leadership lack leadership behaviours that motivate employees to be the best they can be for the organization and to go the extra mile for colleagues and superiors. 3.3 Transformational leadership The transformational leadership theory of Bass (1985) states that transformational leadership creates a bond of trust between the leader and followers, motivating employees to achieve beyond expectations. According to Bass (1985) transformational leadership activates employees higher-order needs and lets them act out of the interest of the company. Transformational leaders are able to motivate their followers to the degree that they not only increase their task performance but also engage in OCBs that help the organization to function in an effective way (Smith, Organ, Near, 1983). Transformational leaders motivate their subordinates to come up with creative and innovative for difficult issues within the organization (Bass, 1985). Furthermore, in the transformational leadership style the leaders encourage their followers to go the extra mile for the organization and they reach out to their employees with constructive feedback (Bass, 1985).   Transformational leaders make thei r missions and goals clear to their followers and they convince the followers to act out of interest of the company (Piccolo Colquitt, 2006). Employees who are able to link their own success with that of the company and can identify with the values and goals of the organization are more likely to add value to the organization (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, Fetter, 1990). Bass (1985) states in his research that when a manager acts like a transformational leader he will be perceived as a more satisfying and effective leader than a transactional leader. Furthermore, according to the studies of Bass (1985), employees report that they are more willing to put in extra effort and time for managers who behave as transformational leaders. Bass Avolio (1993) and Pillai (1995) have reported in their studies that there is a positive relationship between transformational leadership and employee satisfaction, and between transformational leadership and in-role behaviours that lead to job perf ormance. According to Yukl (1999) transformational leadership can be viewed as the equivalent of charismatic leadership. In their research, Avolio Bass (2002) distinguished four different components of transformational leadership. Idealized influence: The leaders are admired, respected and trusted by their followers. The leaders are seen as examples/ role-models by the followers and the followers are inspired to emulate their actions. The leaders also put their followers interests above their own interest which earns them trust and respect. Idealized influence, or the charismatic dimension of transformational leadership (Bass, 1985), is often described as the most important component of transformational leadership (Waldman, Bass, Yammarino, 1990). Charismatic leaders receive respect and trust from their followers, because they create a sense of pride among their followers and communicate clear visions and missions (Bass, 1985).   Inspirational motivation: The leaders motivate their followers by attaching meaning and challenge to their work. The leader shows optimism and enthusiasm which stimulates individual and team spirit among the followers. Individualized consideration: The leaders take the needs and desires of the individual followers into account. The followers receive individual support from their leader in order to grow and develop and achieve higher goals. Intellectual stimulation: The followers are encouraged to be creative and innovative by their leaders. New approaches and new ideas are stimulated in order to get creative solutions to existing problems. Out of the box thinking is rewarded and it is not a shame to make errors. Chapter 4. The influence of transactional and transformational leadership on OCB 4.1 Introduction The predominant style of leadership in an organization has a great influence on the amount and types of OCBs performed by the employees within the organization. Bass (1990) described an experiment in a working area for convicted inmates. In this workplace the inmates had to produce several different types of products for in and outside the prison walls. One group of their supervisors received training in order to become transformational leaders, and the other group received a transactional leadership training. The inmates that were supervised by groups of transformational leaders performed better than those that were supervised by the transactional leaders. Not only did they perform better in the areas of productivity, absence and behaviour, the inmates also engaged in more citizenship behaviours. Furthermore, Bass (1990) states in his research that managers who are viewed as the high performers by their supervisors, also were viewed to be of a more transformational than transactional nature by their followers in a separate survey. In this chapter the relationship between transactional leadership, transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behaviour will be discussed. 4.2 Transactional leadership and OCB The transactional leadership style is based on an exchange relation between leaders and their followers. Employees are rewarded or punished based on whether or not their performance is according to the standards that were set by their transactional supervisors (Bass, 1985; Bass Riggio, 2006; Deluga, 1990). Because transactional leadership is a system of mutual dependency between leaders and followers that is based on self interest (Lagamarsino Cordona, 2003) and primarily an exchange process, transactional leadership leads to a low amount of citizenship behaviours performed by employees. The four different types of transactional leadership (Bass, 1990) do not convince employees to perform the seven dimensions of citizenship behaviour (Podsakoff et al.,2000). In the laissez-faire leadership style the leader avoids making decisions and steps away from his responsibilities. The followers have to do their tasks on their own and there is hardly any communication with the leaders. The leader is frequently absent, inattentive and indifferent and does not influence the workforce (Dubinsky et al.,1995). It is obvious that this type of leader will not stimulate citizenship behaviours among his followers. The leaders who act according to the management by exception style (both passive and active) only intervene when their followers do not meet up with the requirements and standards that are set for them. The employees do not meet up to their part of the exchange process (Bass Riggio, 2006) which is the only reason for the leader to communicate with the workforce. This kind of leadership behaviour does not stimulate the employees to engage in citizenship behaviours. The only type of transactional leadership that has some kind of relation to the dimensions of OCB is the contingent reward leadership style. In the contingent reward leadership style the employees receives recognition from their leader when they Avolio, Waldman Einstein (1988) Waldman, Bass Yammarino (1990) have reported in their studies that contingent reward leader behaviours have a positive influence on employee performance and follower attitudes. 4.3 Transformational leadership (charismatic leadership) and OCB Den Hartog, Keegan De Hoogh (2007) report in their studies that charismatic leadership behaviours of   leaders result in citizenship behaviours among followers. According to Den Hartog et al.(2007) leaders who have charismatic characteristics will increase citizenship behaviours in the dimensions of helping behaviours and organizational compliance. Employees are motivated to perform citizenship behaviours when they are able to identify with their charismatic leader. Research by Podsakoff et al.(1990) reports that there are direct and indirect effects of transformational leadership on citizenship behaviours and that trust is the key to this relationship. Konovsky Pugh (1994) also state that when employees experience procedural and distributive justice within their organization, this will enhance their sense of trust in the leader and will eventually lead to higher levels of citizenship behaviour. Shamir, House Arthur (1993) state that the positive influence of the charismatic leadership style on citizenship behaviours of employees can be described in a motivational process. In the beginning of this process the charismatic leader instils trust among the followers and makes the followers identify with him. Secondly, the charismatic leader enhances the followers role/task identification. This leads to increased levels of intrinsic motivation and increases the willingness of the employees to make sacrifices for their job. The charismatic leaders also increase the amount of citizenship behaviours by emphasizing the importance and superiority of the own group in contrast to other groups. This in turn results into high levels of identification among followers   with the group or team (Shamir et al., 1993). The positive relation between transformational leadership and citizenship behaviours is also emphasized by the link between the seven dimensions of organizational citizenship behaviour (Podsakoff et al.,2000) and the four components of transformational leadership (Avolio Bass, 2002). For instance, the transformational leadership components intellectual stimulation and inspirational motivation can be linked to the self development and individual initiative dimension of OCB. When a leader performs transformational leadership behaviours like intellectual stimulation or inspirational motivation, followers are likely to engage in citizenship behaviours like self development or individual initiative. Transformational leadership component Organizational citizenship behaviour dimension Idealized influence Organizational compliance Civic virtue Organizational loyalty Inspirational motivation Self development Individual initiative Sportsmanship Individual consideration Self development Individual initiative Intellectual stimulation Self development Individual initiative Table 1. Linking OCB dimensions to transformational leadership components. Chapter 5.Conclusions and recommendations 5.1 Introduction This chapter will provide a conclusion to this thesis. An answer to the problem statement and the research questions will be given. Furthermore, this chapter will contain some managerial recommendations and recommendations for future research and also some limitations of this research will be discussed. 5.2 The conclusion The problem statement of this thesis is: How do the different styles of leadership influence organizational citizenship behaviour? The answer to this question is quite clear. Transformational leaders have the ability to get the best out of their followers and motivate them to go beyond the call of duty. Transformational leaders inspire their followers to be creative and innovative and they emphasize the importance of self-development (Bass, 1985). Employees trust and respect their transformational leaders. Because of the strong social bond with their transformational leader, the employees also experience a bond with their organization. This bond makes the employees act out of interest of the company (Piccolo Colquitt, 2006). The employees are proud to be part of the organization and are willing to engage in citizenship behaviours, even though these behaviours are not part of their job description and are not rewarded. Transformational leadership results in behaviours among employees that fit in the description of the seven dimensions of citizenship behaviours (Podsakoff et al., 2000). They are loyal to their organization; engage in helping behaviours; are good sports to their co-workers; follow the rules of the organization; show individual initiative, self development and feelings of civic virtue. Transformational leaders have the ability to motivate their subordinates to the degree that they not only increase their task performance but also perform citizenship behaviours that help the organization to function in an effective way (Smith, Organ, Near, 1983) Transactional leaders on the other hand have a relation with their employees that is based purely on exchange of productivity for rewards (Deluga, 1990). Because this relationship is based on self interest, rewards and mutual dependency, leaders and followers do not feel the need to go beyond their job description (Lagamarsino Cardona, 2003). Only transactional leaders who follow the contingent reward type of leadership might stimulate their followers to perform OCBs, because they acknowledge the accomplishments of the employees who reach their goals (Bass, 1990). Avolio, Waldman Einstein (1988) Waldman, Bass Yammarion (1990) have reported a positive relation between contingent reward leader behaviours and follower performance and follower attitudes. Laissez-faire leaders let their employees perform their tasks by themselves and are frequently absent, inattentive and do not influence the workforce (Bass, 1990; Dubinsky, Yammarino, Jolson, Spangler, 1995). Leaders who follow the style of management by exception (both passive and active) only interrupt the work process when the standards and requirements are not met by their followers (Bass, 1990). The conclusion is that transactional leadership is the complete opposite of transformational leadership regarding the influence on citizenship behaviour within an organization. Transformational leaders stimulate among their followers OCB through various actions, and transactional leaders do not stimulate OCB at all. Citizenship behaviours are desired within an organization because these combined contributions of individual employees increase the effectiveness of the organization significantly over time (Organ Konovsky (1989). However, organizations have to watch out with exerting citizenship pressures. These citizenship pressures do increase the amount of citizenship behaviours within the organization, however citizenship pressure is also linked with job stress, work-family conflicts, work-leisure conflicts and quitting intensions among employees (Bolino et al, 2010). 5.3 Limitations of the research One limitation in this research on the area of the desirability of OCB within organizations is that there are no exact measurements of the positive outcomes of citizenship behaviours and the negative effects of job stress, work-family conflicts, work-leisure conflicts and quitting intensions. This makes it difficult to make a precise assessment of the desirability of OCB and to find out whether or not and to what degree citizenship pressures are effective. The examination of the right way and the right amount of citizenship pressures might be another interesting topic for future research. Another limitation of this research is the fact that only the two predominant leadership styles, transformational and transactional leadership, are taken into account in researching the link between leadership styles and organizational citizenship behaviour.

Isadora Duncan Essay - 2921 Words

Isadora Duncan amp;#9;Isadora Duncan was a famous dancer who brought a new kind of dance to the world. She danced out the feelings from deep in her heart. Unlike other dancers in the late nineteenth century, Isadora Duncan danced with flowing motion. She was not a ballerina, and did not like to watch ballet dancers, with their stiff bodies and unnatural pointe shoes. At first she was not liked, but as time went on, Isadora Duncan became a dance revolutionist people all over the world will never forget. amp;#9;Angela Isadora Duncan was born, one of four, on May 26,1877 in San Francisco, California. Her mother, Dora Duncan, was a piano teacher, and her father, Joseph Duncan was a banker, journalist, and poet. Her parents were both†¦show more content†¦She knew how to dance from all the practice she got from dancing at home to their mothers piano music, but she had not yet taken any dancing lessons. Her mother saved up enough money for her to participate in a small dance school, but Isadora disliked her teacher. He made her dance in pointe shoes, which Isadora found painful, ugly, and unnatural. In ballet, everything has a specific step or a traditional pose. Ballerinas dance with stiff bodies, without freedom of movement. This went against the way Isadora liked to dance. She quit her schooling after three lessons. Although her own dance lessons had not gone well, she quit her academic schooling, and started her business. Her neighbors had noticed her gracefulness and began s ending their children to be her students. Pretty soon, word got around and Isadora was teaching some of the wealthy girls of San Francisco. Her classes eventually grew so large that Isadora found that her own dance lessons had indeed been unnecessary. amp;#9;One day, when Isadora was sixteen, her father came back to their apartment with good news. He felt badly about leaving his family with practically nothing, when he had plenty of money to himself. He bought the family a giant mansion with a tennis court, dancing rooms, a barn and a windmill. Then he left, never to be seen by his family again. Elizabeth and Isadora started a dance school and Raymond and Augastin made theShow MoreRelatedIsadora Duncan: Pioneer of Modern Dance825 Words   |  3 Pageswords.† (Duncan, 440) Mid nineteenth centuries was a period of rigid and standardized ballet which tortured and restrained their body and mind. Against that societys convention, there was a woman who tried to communicate with people through her dance. She, Isadora Duncan, was a pioneer of the modern dance, and her dance embraced her sophisticated ideals. Even though the public remember her only with the complicated and scandalous rumors about her lovers and dramatic death by sc arf, Isadora Duncan’sRead MoreModern Dance : Isadora Duncan1309 Words   |  6 Pagestheir input into modern dance was Isadora Duncan, throughout the history of modern dance people have referred to Isadora Duncan (1878- 1927) as a symbolic figure of independence. This is not merely because she rejects to follow educational dance but because she has the audacity to disrupt dance ethnicities and shared codes with her aesthetical plans. She mainly creates her choreography by studying other artistic languages such as poetry, monuments and music. For Isadora, dance is an expression of herRead MoreThe Life Of The Mother Of Modern Dance Essay1167 Words   |  5 Pagesunusual. Isadora Duncan began to learn dancing from a very young age. She always wanted to be different from others. She loved to dance, but she thought traditional dances didn t have freedom. So she didn t learn classical ballet. Instead, Isadora listened to the music and created her own way to dance. She barefoot, w ore simple clothes and moved as she liked. No one had ever danced like that before. Isadora Duncan has been one of the most enduring influences on 20th century culture. Duncan was theRead MoreI Have Been Dancing For 11 Years877 Words   |  4 Pageseveryone at balls. This style of dance is very elegant and formal. The movie Cinderella describes how Balls and Ballroom dancing helped people to find the perfect one. The Greeks inspired many people throughout time with dance, in particular Isadora Duncan. Isadora studied Greek culture while in Europe. The Greeks inspired her to take dancing to the next level. From there she became a professional dancer. Moving on in history. The next style of dance that drew attention of the people was the Waltz.Read MoreEssay about Dance688 Words   |  3 Pages 1. What are the innovations of Isadora Duncan, Denishawn, Martha Graham, and Cunningham. Discuss these in relation to style, technique and theory. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Many Historians say that Isadora Duncan was the first dancer to present â€Å"modern dancing† to the public. Duncan felt that the pointe shoes and costumes that ballerinas wore were to restrictive. She began to dance in a way that seemed to be more natural to her. Her inspirations came from the movements of the tress, the oceanRead MoreIs Dance A Universal Language?1616 Words   |  7 Pagesseems to have more of a free-spirited, not so regimented way about it which is refreshing. As our text states, in the late 19th century, the brilliant Isadora Duncan started a movement from the rigidity and strictly ballet moves to a more updated, modern style of dance which incorporated much more freedom and fluidity of all parts of the body (211.) Isadora was a pioneer of dance and she helped the entire practice evolve. Folk dancing seems to be more of a traditional thing, which showcases the dancer’sRead MoreWomen of the Gold Rush1069 Words   |  4 PagesCalifornia to work as prostitutes or entertainers during the 1850’s (Women). However, there were still many women in San Francisco who were very influential and leave an everlasting impression on the city. Women such as Lillie Hitchcock Coit, Isadora Duncan, and Mary Ellen Pleasant were all very important people living in San Francisco during the 1800’s to 1900’s, and were able to make a difference in their community. Being the first woman to participate in a fire rescue and late be made the mascotRead MoreEssay about Isadora Duncans New Dance2141 Words   |  9 PagesIsadora Duncans New Dance At the end of the 19th century, ballet was the most prominent form of dance. However, to Isadora Duncan, ballet was the old order that needed to be overthrown, an embodied symbol of all that was wrong with oversymbolized 19th century living (Daly 26). Duncan believed that the over-technical, over-standardization of ballet was not what dance should be about. Her vision of dance was one of emotions, ideas, social betterment, and the complete involvement of the bodyRead MoreIsadora Duncans Influences1376 Words   |  6 Pages Isadora Duncan was a defining figure in the development of Modern dance. She set out to revolutionise dance by challenging society and by changing the expectations of dance as an art form. She made a new art form by developing a new technique, style, and choreography, which was about letting the soul out and responding to nature. Dance was an integral part of who Duncan was, and it was not so much about what she did. She introduced the use of breath in her dance, which changed the way it was perceivedRead MoreInterpretation Of The Brief. Graded Unit Requires Two Solos1399 Words   |  6 Pagespractitioners coming from a strong ballet background. During this time, ballet was the main style of dance, but Isadora Duncan believed that dance should be natural. She believed dance was a sacred art and showed this in her work. She did not believe in structured ballet classes like most others at the time, often teaching any choreography that she thought up at the time. Isadora Duncan was the real pioneer of contemporary dance, making it easier for others like Merce Cunningham and Martha Graham

Academic Writing and Research Skills

Questions: 1) Use your notes to conduct a critical review of literature in the selected papers. 2) What do you understand by referencing and what are its different styles? Answers: 1. Deception and denial as a tool for cyber defense: Day by day as the cyber attack techniques are getting evolved and modernized, the traditional methods for preventing those attacks became inadequate. In the modern cyber attack scenario, the denial and deception are used to prevent the attacks. In the present day scenario this methodology is gaining momentum to secure the organizational networks (Heckman et al., 2015). The deception is used as a proactive cyber security approach to safeguard a particular computer network. As the signature based security mechanisms are failing in preventing and mitigating the modern Zero day attacks. Most of the cyber attackers, work on the assumption, that the visible network infrastructure is real, and the deception technology takes advantage of this assumptions by the attackers. Carefully outlined traps to pull in assailants while they are penetrating the network and in a flash recognize those attacks (Hsu, Marinucci Voas, 2015). Therefore, the intruders find the physical resources inaccessible by compromising the control system of the network. On the other hand, denial is considered as another effective tool to prevent the intrusion attacks. For this, the adversaries create condition like the denial of service. In this kind of situation, the network is flooded with excessive failed access attempts. This cyber attack prevention mechanism is implemented by the combined efforts of denial and deception planners, analysts, security operators (Heckman et al., 2013). The steps in implementing a Deception and Denial plan include the development of cover story which includes the selection of the information that is going to create the honey pots for the attacker. After that, the whole plan is executed by the security operators. Honeypots are intended to be assaulted to empower information gathering about the intruders/hackers practices and methods, and to uncover vulnerable services provided by the network. Honey pots are ordinarily sorted as high interaction and low interaction. Low interaction honey pots copy the services where the level of copying incorporated with the administrations decides the level of interaction with the honey pot by the intruder or attacker (Heckman et al., 2015). High interaction honey pots give a genuine working operating system intended to react intuitively with the attackers. Use of honey pots: Honey pots are genuine machines with false systems, for example, virtualization and system monitoring apparatuses, made to trick intruders into supposing they have compromised a worthless system, lessening the number of intrusion or attacks on a genuine and valuable system. Honey tokens are another deceptive security approach. Honey tokens are made of files such as records containing false data, an email address related with a non-existent individual or fake movement to recognizing eavesdropping in unknown and anonymous communication systems (Almeshekah Spafford, 2014). This honey tokens are not able to prevent the intrusion attacks, but is able to detect the intrusion in the early phases. In the year 2012, the MITRE Corporation performed a cyber-war game to check the effectiveness of the denial and deception tradecraft in securing an organizational cyber space. The cyber war game was intended to test a dynamic organizational network resistance digital security platform being researched and invented in The MITRE Corporation's Innovation Program called Blackjack, and to examine the utility of utilizing denial and deception method to upgrade the security of data in control and command systems (Hsu, Marinucci Voas, 2015). Figure 1: Architecture of CND based defense mechanism (Source: Heckman et al., 2013, pp-74) Blackjack utilized a rules engine to apply policies to each HTTP request coming in the organizational network with a specific end goal to direct the response to client requests called Intellect, which is domain specific language and rules engine developed in Python programming language. According to Bogatinov et al. (2015), the user requests are processed depending upon the proxy configuration and digital certificates of the users. Ant based approach: Another approach for securing the networks is, MTD (Moving target defense). This mechanism is applied to the already defended systems or networks. According to Hsu, Marinucci Voas (2015) this approach uses shuffling of the configurations of network equipments (like routers, switches), remapping of the address space is used to secure the network (Fink et al., 2014). In this way, an IP address targeted by the attackers does not always is assigned to a specific computer/ workstation. In order to implement this kind of security mechanism administrators depends on the ant based cyber defense approach. This approach is a flexible resistance mechanism that removes the chances of intruders ability to depend on prior knowledge, without any significant change in the secured network. 2. Referencing: While writing an academic paper, we refer to the information to another source. This source can be other authors theories, quotes and views in their own reports and journals (Wingate, 2012). Whenever we use those sources, we have to acknowledge those sources in our academic report or journal. Acknowledging the sources in the academic writing is known as referencing. Different styles of referencing: The following table describes different types of referencing styles used by different universities and organization for acknowledging the source of information. Referencing Style Organization Special features Application APA American psychological Association Author name and date used to in text. Social and behavioral sciences, anthropology and psychology. Harvard Harvard University Author name and date used to in text. Business studies, natural and social sciences. Chicago University of Chicago press Have flexible guidelines for the headings. Author, date and note used to in text (Turabian, 2013). Social, biological and physical sciences. IEEE Institute for Electronics Electrical Engineers Name of the journal or report on italics, authors first and last name is used. Electrical engineering studies and Electronics. MLA Modern Languages association of America Author and page number of the report or journal is used to in text. Modern day literature, humanities and other subjects and fields. Vancouver Proposed in a meeting in Vancouver Number for each source is used for in text (Wingate Tribble, 2012). Mostly in Medical sciences and humanities. References Almeshekah, M. H., Spafford, E. H. (2014, September). Planning and integrating deception into computer security defenses. InProceedings of the 2014 workshop on New Security Paradigms Workshop(pp. 127-138). ACM. Bogatinov, D., Bogdanoski, M., Angelevski, S. (2015). AI-Based Cyber Defense for More Secure Cyberspace. Fink, G. A., Haack, J. N., McKinnon, A. D., Fulp, E. W. (2014). Defense on the move: ant-based cyber defense.IEEE Security Privacy,12(2), 36-43. Heckman, K. E., Stech, F. J., Schmoker, B. S., Thomas, R. K. (2015). Denial and Deception in Cyber Defense.Computer,48(4), 36-44. Heckman, K. E., Walsh, M. J., Stech, F. J., O'boyle, T. A., DiCato, S. R., Herber, A. F. (2013). Active cyber defense with denial and deception: A cyber-wargame experiment.Computers Security,37, 72-77. Hsu, D. F., Marinucci, D., Voas, J. M. (2015). Cybersecurity: Toward a Secure and Sustainable Cyber Ecosystem.Computer,48(4), 12-14. Turabian, K. L. (2013).A manual for writers of research papers, theses, and dissertations: Chicago style for students and researchers. University of Chicago Press. Wingate, U. (2012). Using academic literacies and genre-based models for academic writing instruction: A literacyjourney.Journal of English for Academic Purposes,11(1), 26-37. Wingate, U., Tribble, C. (2012). The best of both worlds? Towards an English for Academic Purposes/Academic Literacies writing pedagogy.Studies in Higher Education,37(4), 481-495.

NIke ad free essay sample

When Introducing Yourself First Impressions are a crucial factor In determining how a person Judges you and what their overall opinion is of you. According to Merriam-Webster. Com, an impression is the effect or influence that something or someone has on a persons thoughts or feelings. When walking into a Job interview, first impressions are a major factor in whether you are going to get the Job or not because it causes the interviewer to make Judges and opinions about you.To begin Introducing yourself, It helps If you start by saying your name and to address the person by their name Marshall 1). Saying the other persons name two or three times at the beginning of an introduction can help you remember their name and show an interest in the person (Marshall 1). There are many things that make up a great first impression, but three main tips that help you conduct good impressions are to be yourself when introducing yourself, present yourself appropriately, and to be open and confident when speaking (Making 1). We will write a custom essay sample on NIke ad or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page One of the most Irritating things I find when people speak Is when they make up things to portray themselves In a certain way that they feel Is right, but that way Is the furthest thing from who they really are. You have to be yourself when introducing yourself because you want to build a relationship with the person for who you really are, not who you want to be. When introducing yourself, if you feel sick or really anxious it can make the other person to feel strange and make a wrong impression (Making 1).Therefore, It Is always important that a person remains calm and acts themselves In order to deliver a good Impression. If you are confident, ready, and excited about introducing yourself, it will give off a good impression because it makes the other person feel more comfortable and seem like you really want to be there (Making 1). Presenting yourself appropriately is important wherever you are, but it is especially Important when Introducing yourself. The way you dress Is the first thing that another person sees when he or she looks at that you.Additionally, It Is a major making a good first impression. If you walk into a business meeting with executives from a new company wearing a tracksuit and sneakers, it is going to give the executives a bad impression about you and your company causing them to avoid doing any business from you. But, if you wore a nice suit and tie and acted professionally and maturely, then the executives can take you seriously and possibly o business. Presenting yourself appropriately leads to creating a strong and positive first impression (Making 1).When introducing yourself to an audience or to a single person, it is important that you remain open, confident, and communicate proper body language during your speech. Body language is another factor that determines the impression you make on a person. Remember, all introductions should portray enthusiasm by smiling, making eye contact, and speaking with a positive tone of voice (Marshall 2). You can stay confident during an introduction by walking up to a person with good gesture, a smile on your face, and ready to shake the other persons hand.Always remember to smile because that alone gives off a good impression. Your tone of voice should sound like you are excited, positive, and confident, but not over-confident (Marshall 2). Always remain open about yourself as well. Self-disclosure can be a good and bad thing during introducing yourself. You want to be comfortable and be able to talk about some of your goals and desires, but you dont want to talk too much about yourself where you may scare the other person off and ultimately give a bad impression.You want to always be ready to answer a follow up question by the other person. Body language and tone of voice are two important things to consider when introducing yourself and they can help you feel open and confident when talking. Judging someone is a very bad thing because most of the time they are wrong. People Judge someone by first impressions and a lot of the time they are bad or wrong impressions about the person. On that note, it is important that you portray a good first impression because it is ultimately what determines what people think of you.